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These factors have significant potential for negative repercussions on the mental health and well-being of healthcare staff.4 5 There have been reports of high levels of stress, depression and even suicides,6 and long-term effects include where to buy cialis a higher risk for post-traumatic stress disorder or moral injury.5Healthcare organisations need to plan for the inevitable consequence of this cialis and ensure that resources are in place for their workers. Screening for mental health issues and treatment, including counselling, should be made available. In addition, nurses and other healthcare staff should be encouraged to reflect where to buy cialis on their experiences and consider how to implement self-care strategies that will enhance their well-being. This includes staying informed of the current data and information and being aware of the risks to themselves and others while caring for patients with the cialis.

By monitoring and enacting strategies to reduce stress and develop support systems, staff can minimise longer-term impacts.4Whether organisational support and self-care monitoring have achieved better mental health outcomes for healthcare workers is, as yet, unknown. Research across the globe is underway not only related to where to buy cialis the cialis itself but also to the mental health consequences of the cialis. We do not yet know the extent of the issues or how best to support healthcare providers. In order to better understand the issues and to support nurses at this time, evidence-based nursing will focus where to buy cialis our social media to mental health issues during the month of October.

We will highlight and share relevant resources and information and encourage discussion of the key challenges facing healthcare workers.During October, we will showcase the experiences of four key groups—patients, nurses, students and informal carers and families. Be sure to log into evidence-based nursing each week for where to buy cialis the following blogs:October 4. Impact of erectile dysfunction treatment on patient mental health.October 11. Impact of erectile dysfunction treatment on nurses’ mental health and.Twitter Chat on where to buy cialis Wednesday October 14 at 20:00 UK time.Oct.

18. Impact of erectile dysfunction treatment on student nursing.Oct. 25. Impact of erectile dysfunction treatment on informal carers and families.A PhD is a globally recognised postgraduate degree and typically the highest degree programme awarded by a University, with students usually required to expand the boundaries of knowledge by undertaking original research.

The purpose of PhD programmes of study is to nurture, support and facilitate doctoral students to undertake independent research to expected academic and research standards, culminating in a substantial thesis and examined by viva voce. In this paper—the first of two linked Research Made Simple articles—we explore what the foundations of a high-quality PhD are, and how a Doctoral candidate can develop a study which is successful, original and impactful.Foundations of a ‘good’ PhD studySupervision and supportCentral to the development and completion of a good PhD is the supervisory relationship between the student and supervisor. The supervisor guides the student by directing them to resources and training to ensure continuous learning, provides opportunity to engage with experts in the field, and facilitates the development of critical thinking through questioning and providing constructive criticism.1The support needs of students will be different, so a flexible yet quality assured approach to PhD research training is required. A good supervisory team (usually includes at least two postdoctoral academics) provide experienced guidance and mentorship and will offer students academic support, with regular meetings and timely feedback on written submissions, will assist the student to develop a peer network and help them access research communities relative to their field.

Effective supervision has beneficial outcomes for students, including encouraging a positive work ethic and influencing engagement in a stimulating environment, allowing students to pursue their own ideas with educated encouragement. The quality of the supervisory relationship can impact greatly on the PhD experience and ultimately sets the student on the road to producing excellent Doctoral work.1An environment that promotes personal and professional development is further aided by positive peer interactions. If students feel part of a community and have contact with others also working on doctoral studies, there is the scope for peer compassion and understanding during both challenging and rewarding periods. Students who access personal and professional support and guidance through mentoring models during their studies are more likely to succeed.

These models include one-to-one peer mentoring or activities for example journal discussion or methods learning groups. Often, groups of students naturally come together and give each other support and advice about research process expectations and challenges, and offer friendship, and guidance.2 Given the usefulness of different types of mentoring models, all can create a supportive and collaborative environment within a PhD programme of study, to minimise working in isolation and enable students to achieve their greatest potential.Characteristics of a good study. Originality and theoretical underpinningA PhD should make an original contribution to knowledge. Originality can be achieved through the study design, the nature or outcomes of the knowledge synthesis, or the implications for research and/or practice.3 Disciplinary variation, however, influences the assessment of originality.

For example, originality in science, technology, engineering and mathematics subjects is often inferred if the work is published/publishable, in comparison to intellectual originality in the social sciences.4 Although PhD originality assumes different nuances in different contexts, there is a general acceptance across disciplines that there should be evidence of the following within the thesis:An interplay between old and new—any claims of originality are developed from existing knowledge and practices.There are degrees of originality, relating to more than one aspect of the thesis.Any claims for originality are accompanied by clear articulation of significance.A good PhD should be also underpinned by theoretical and/or conceptual frameworks (that include philosophical and methodological models) that give clarity to the approach, structure and vision of the study.5 These theoretical and conceptual frameworks can explain why the study is pertinent and how the research addresses gaps in the literature.6 Table 1 provides a distinction of what construes theoretical and conceptual frameworks.View this table:Table 1 Characteristics of theoretical and conceptual frameworks7Theoretical/conceptual frameworks must align with the research question/aims, and the student must be able to articulate how conceptual/theoretical framework were chosen. Key points for consideration include:Are the research questions/aim and objectives well defined?. What theory/theories/concepts are being operationalised?. How are the theories/concepts related?.

Are the ontological and epistemological perspectives clearly conveyed and how do they relate to theories and concepts outlined?. What are the potential benefits and limitations of the theories and concepts outlined?. Are the ways the theories/concepts are outlined and being used original?. A PhD thesis (and demonstrable in viva) must be able to offer cohesion between the choice of research methods that stems from the conceptual/theoretical framework, the related ontological and epistemological decisions, the theoretical perspective and the chosen methodology (table 2).

PhD students must be able to articulate the methodological decisions made and be critical of methods employed to answer their research questions.View this table:Table 2 Relationship between research paradigms, perspectives, methodologies and methods.8 9ConclusionIn summary, we offer considerations of what the foundations of a good PhD should be. We have considered some of the key ingredients of quality PhD supervision, support and research processes and explored how these will contribute to the development of a study that leads to student success and which makes a valuable contribution to the evidence base. In the next paper, we will look in more detail at the assessment of the PhD through the submission of a thesis and an oral viva..

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How to half a pill of cialis cite this article:Singh OP. The National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, 2020 and its implication for mental health. Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:119-20The National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, 2020 has been notified on March 28, 2021, by the Gazette of India published by the Ministry half a pill of cialis of Law and Justice. This bill aims to “provide for regulation and maintenance of standards of education and services by allied and healthcare professionals, assessment of institutions, maintenance of a Central Register and State Register and creation of a system to improve access, research and development and adoption of latest scientific advancement and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.”[1]This act has created a category of Health Care Professionals which is defined as. €œhealthcare professional” includes a scientist, therapist, or other professional who studies, advises, researches, supervises or provides preventive, curative, rehabilitative, therapeutic or promotional health services and who has obtained any qualification of degree under this Act, the duration of which shall not be <3600 h spread over a period of 3 years to 6 years divided into specific semesters.[1]According to the act, “Allied health professional” includes an associate, technician, or technologist who is trained to perform any technical and practical task to support diagnosis and treatment of illness, disease, injury or impairment, and half a pill of cialis to support implementation of any healthcare treatment and referral plan recommended by a medical, nursing, or any other healthcare professional, and who has obtained any qualification of diploma or degree under this Act, the duration of which shall not be less than 2000 h spread over a period of 2 years to 4 years divided into specific semesters.”[1]It is noticeable that while the term “Health Care Professionals” does not include doctors who are registered under National Medical Council, Mental Health Care Act (MHCA), 2017 includes psychiatrists under the ambit of Mental Health Care Professionals.[2] This discrepancy needs to be corrected - psychiasts, being another group of medical specialists, should be kept out of the broad umbrella of “Mental Healthcare Professionals.”The category of Behavioural Health Sciences Professional has been included and defined as “a person who undertakes scientific study of the emotions, behaviours and biology relating to a person's mental well-being, their ability to function in everyday life and their concept of self.

€œBehavioural health” is the preferred term to “mental health” and includes professionals such as counselors, analysts, psychologists, educators and support workers, who provide counseling, therapy, and mediation services to individuals, families, groups, and communities in response to social and personal difficulties.”[1]This is a welcome step to the extent that it creates a diverse category of trained workforce in the field of Mental Health (Behavioural Health Science Professionals) and tries to regulate their training although it mainly aims to promote mental wellbeing. However there half a pill of cialis is a huge lacuna in the term of “Mental Illness” as defined by MHCA, 2017. Only severe disorders are included as per definition and there is no clarity regarding inclusion of other psychiatric disorders, namely “common mental disorders” such as anxiety and depression. This leaves half a pill of cialis a strong possibility of concept of “psychiatric illnesses” being limited to only “severe psychiatric disorders” (major psychoses) thus perpetuating the stigma and alienation associated with psychiatric patients for centuries. Psychiatrists being restricted to treating severe mental disorders as per MHCA, 2017, there is a strong possibility that the care of common mental disorders may gradually pass on under the care of “behavioural health professionals” as per the new act!.

There is need to look into this aspect by the leadership in psychiatry, both organizational and academic psychiatry, and reduce the contradictions between the MHCA, half a pill of cialis 2017 and this nascent act. All disorders classified in ICD 10 and DSM 5 should be classified as “Psychiatric Disorders” or “Mental Illness.” This will not only help in fighting the stigma associated with psychiatric illnesses but also promote the integration of psychiatry with other specialties. References 1.The National Commission for Allied and Healthcare half a pill of cialis Professions Act, 2021. The Gazette of India. Published by Ministry of Law and half a pill of cialis Justice.

28 March, 2021. 2.The Mental half a pill of cialis Healthcare Act, 2017. The Gazette of India. Published by Ministry of Law and half a pill of cialis Justice. April 7, 2017.

Correspondence Address:Om Prakash SinghAA 304, Ashabari Apartments, O/31, Baishnabghata, Patuli Township, Kolkata - half a pill of cialis 700 094, West Bengal IndiaSource of Support. None, Conflict of Interest. NoneDOI. 10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_268_21Abstract Thiamine is essential for the activity of several enzymes associated with energy metabolism half a pill of cialis in humans. Chronic alcohol use is associated with deficiency of thiamine along with other vitamins through several mechanisms.

Several neuropsychiatric syndromes have been associated with thiamine deficiency in the context of alcohol use disorder including Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, alcoholic cerebellar syndrome, alcoholic half a pill of cialis peripheral neuropathy, and possibly, Marchiafava–Bignami syndrome. High-dose thiamine replacement is suggested for these neuropsychiatric syndromes.Keywords. Alcohol use disorder, alcoholic cerebellar syndrome, alcoholic peripheral neuropathy, Marchiafava–Bignami syndrome, thiamine, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndromeHow to cite this article:Praharaj SK, Munoli RN, Shenoy S, Udupa half a pill of cialis ST, Thomas LS. High-dose thiamine strategy in Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome and related thiamine deficiency conditions associated with alcohol use disorder. Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:121-6How to cite this URL:Praharaj SK, Munoli RN, Shenoy S, Udupa ST, half a pill of cialis Thomas LS.

High-dose thiamine strategy in Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome and related thiamine deficiency conditions associated with alcohol use disorder. Indian J Psychiatry [serial half a pill of cialis online] 2021 [cited 2021 Jun 11];63:121-6. Available from. Https://www.indianjpsychiatry.org/text.asp?. 2021/63/2/121/313716 Introduction Thiamine is a water-soluble vitamin (B1) that plays a key role in the activity of several enzymes associated with energy metabolism.

Thiamine pyrophosphate (or diphosphate) is the active form that acts as a cofactor for enzymes. The daily dietary requirement of thiamine in adults is 1–2 mg and is dependent on carbohydrate intake.[1],[2] The requirement increases if basal metabolic rate is higher, for example, during alcohol withdrawal state. Dietary sources include pork (being the major source), meat, legume, vegetables, and enriched foods. The body can store between 30 and 50 mg of thiamine and is likely to get depleted within 4–6 weeks if the diet is deficient.[2] In those with alcohol-related liver damage, the ability to store thiamine is gradually reduced.[1],[2]Lower thiamine levels are found in 30%–80% of chronic alcohol users.[3] Thiamine deficiency occurs due to poor intake of vitamin-rich foods, impaired intestinal absorption, decreased storage capacity of liver, damage to the renal epithelial cells due to alcohol, leading to increased loss from the kidneys, and excessive loss associated with medical conditions.[2],[3] Furthermore, alcohol decreases the absorption of colonic bacterial thiamine, reduces the enzymatic activity of thiamine pyrophosphokinase, and thereby, reducing the amount of available thiamine pyrophosphate.[4] Since facilitated diffusion of thiamine into cells is dependent on a concentration gradient, reduced thiamine pyrophosphokinase activity further reduces thiamine uptake into cells.[4] Impaired utilization of thiamine is seen in certain conditions (e.g., hypomagnesemia) which are common in alcohol use disorder.[2],[3],[4] This narrative review discusses the neuropsychiatric syndromes associated with thiamine deficiency in the context of alcohol use disorder, and the treatment regimens advocated for these conditions. A PubMed search supplemented with manual search was used to identify neuropsychiatric syndromes related to thiamine deficiency in alcohol use disorder patients.

Neuropsychiatric Syndromes Associated With Thiamine Deficiency Wernicke–Korsakoff syndromeWernicke encephalopathy is associated with chronic alcohol use, and if not identified and treated early, could lead to permanent brain damage characterized by an amnestic syndrome known as Korsakoff syndrome. Inappropriate treatment of Wernicke encephalopathy with lower doses of thiamine can lead to high mortality rates (~20%) and Korsakoff syndrome in ~ 80% of patients (ranges from 56% to 84%).[5],[6] The classic triad of Wernicke includes oculomotor abnormalities, cerebellar dysfunction, and confusion. Wernicke lesions are found in 12.5% of brain samples of patients with alcohol dependence.[7] However, only 20%–30% of them had a clinical diagnosis of Wernicke encephalopathy antemortem. It has been found that many patients develop Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) following repeated subclinical episodes of thiamine deficiency.[7] In an autopsy report of 97 chronic alcohol users, only16% had all the three “classical signs,” 29% had two signs, 37% presented with one sign, and 19% had none.[8] Mental status changes are the most prevalent sign (seen in 82% of the cases), followed by eye signs (in 29%) and ataxia (23%).[8] WKS should be suspected in persons with a history of alcohol use and presenting with signs of ophthalmoplegia, ataxia, acute confusion, memory disturbance, unexplained hypotension, hypothermia, coma, or unconsciousness.[9] Operational criteria for the diagnosis of Wernicke encephalopathy have been proposed by Caine et al.[10] that requires two out of four features, i.e., (a) dietary deficiency (signs such as cheilitis, glossitis, and bleeding gums), (b) oculomotor abnormalities (nystagmus, opthalmoplegia, and diplopia), (c) cerebellar dysfunction (gait ataxia, nystagmus), and (d) either altered mental state (confusion) or mild memory impairment.As it is very difficult to clinically distinguish Wernicke encephalopathy from other associated conditions such as delirium tremens, hepatic encephalopathy, or head injury, it is prudent to have a lower threshold to diagnose this if any of the clinical signs is seen. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scan during Wernicke encephalopathy shows mammillary body atrophy and enlarged third ventricle, lesions in the medial portions of thalami and mid brain and can be used to aid diagnosis.[11],[12] However, most clinical situations warrant treatment without waiting for neuroimaging report.

The treatment suggestions in the guidelines vary widely. Furthermore, hardly any evidence-based recommendations exist on a more general use of thiamine as a preventative intervention in individuals with alcohol use disorder.[13] There are very few studies that have evaluated the dose and duration of thiamine for WKS, but higher doses may result in a greater response.[6],[14] With thiamine administration rapid improvement is seen in eye movement abnormalities (improve within days or weeks) and ataxia (may take months to recover), but the effects on memory, in particular, are unclear.[4],[14] Severe memory impairment is the core feature of Korsakoff syndrome. Initial stages of the disease can present with confabulation, executive dysfunction, flattened affect, apathy, and poor insight.[15] Both the episodic and semantic memory are affected, whereas, procedural memory remains intact.[15]Thomson et al.[6] suggested the following should be treated with thiamine as they are at high risk for developing WKS. (1) all patients with any evidence of chronic alcohol misuse and any of the following. Acute confusion, decreased conscious level, ataxia, ophthalmoplegia, memory disturbance, and hypothermia with hypotension.

(2) patients with delirium tremens may often also have Wernicke encephalopathy, therefore, all of these patients should be presumed to have Wernicke encephalopathy and treated, preferably as inpatients. And (3) all hypoglycemic patients (who are treated with intravenous glucose) with evidence of chronic alcohol ingestion must be given intravenous thiamine immediately because of the risk of acutely precipitating Wernicke encephalopathy.Alcoholic cerebellar syndromeChronic alcohol use is associated with the degeneration of anterior superior vermis, leading to a clinical syndrome characterized by the subacute or chronic onset of gait ataxia and incoordination in legs, with relative sparing of upper limbs, speech, and oculomotor movements.[16] In severe cases, truncal ataxia, mild dysarthria, and incoordination of the upper limb is also found along with gait ataxia. Thiamine deficiency is considered to be the etiological factor,[17],[18] although direct toxic effects of alcohol may also contribute to this syndrome. One-third of patients with chronic use of alcohol have evidence of alcoholic cerebellar degeneration. However, population-based studies estimate prevalence to be 14.6%.[19] The effect of alcohol on the cerebellum is graded with the most severe deficits occurring in alcohol users with the longest duration and highest severity of use.

The diagnosis of cerebellar degeneration is largely clinical. MRI can be used to evaluate for vermian atrophy but is unnecessary.[20] Anterior portions of vermis are affected early, with involvement of posterior vermis and adjacent lateral hemispheres occurring late in the course could be used to differentiate alcoholic cerebellar degeneration from other conditions that cause more diffuse involvement.[21] The severity of cerebellar syndrome is more in the presence of WKS, thus could be related to thiamine deficiency.[22],[23] Therefore, this has been considered as a cerebellar presentation of WKS and should be treated in a similar way.[16] There are anecdotal evidence to suggest improvement in cerebellar syndrome with high-dose thiamine.[24]Alcoholic peripheral neuropathyPeripheral neuropathy is common in alcohol use disorder and is seen in 44% of the users.[25] It has been associated predominantly with thiamine deficiency. However, deficiency of other B vitamins (pyridoxine and cobalamin) and direct toxic effect of alcohol is also implicated.[26] Clinically, onset of symptoms is gradual with the involvement of both sensory and motor fibers and occasionally autonomic fibers. Neuropathy can affect both small and large peripheral nerve fibers, leading to different clinical manifestations. Thiamine deficiency-related neuropathy affects larger fiber types, which results in motor deficits and sensory ataxia.

On examination, large fiber involvement is manifested by distal limb muscle weakness and loss of proprioception and vibratory sensation. Together, these can contribute to the gait unsteadiness seen in chronic alcohol users by creating a superimposed steppage gait and reduced proprioceptive input back to the movement control loops in the central nervous system. The most common presentations include painful sensations in both lower limbs, sometimes with burning sensation or numbness, which are early symptoms. Typically, there is a loss of vibration sensation in distal lower limbs. Later symptoms include loss of proprioception, gait disturbance, and loss of reflexes.

Most advanced findings include weakness and muscle atrophy.[20] Progression is very gradual over months and involvement of upper limbs may occur late in the course. Diagnosis begins with laboratory evaluation to exclude other causes of distal, sensorimotor neuropathy including hemoglobin A1c, liver function tests, and complete blood count to evaluate for red blood cell macrocytosis. Cerebrospinal fluid studies may show increased protein levels but should otherwise be normal in cases of alcohol neuropathy and are not recommended in routine evaluation. Electromyography and nerve conduction studies can be used to distinguish whether the neuropathy is axonal or demyelinating and whether it is motor, sensory, or mixed type. Alcoholic neuropathy shows reduced distal, sensory amplitudes, and to a lesser extent, reduced motor amplitudes on nerve conduction studies.[20] Abstinence and vitamin supplementation including thiamine are the treatments advocated for this condition.[25] In mild-to-moderate cases, near-complete improvement can be achieved.[20] Randomized controlled trials have showed a significant improvement in alcoholic polyneuropathy with thiamine treatment.[27],[28]Marchiafava–Bignami syndromeThis is a rare but fatal condition seen in chronic alcohol users that is characterized by progressive demyelination and necrosis of the corpus callosum.

The association of this syndrome with thiamine deficiency is not very clear, and direct toxic effects of alcohol are also suggested.[29] The clinical syndrome is variable and presentation can be acute, subacute, or chronic. In acute forms, it is predominantly characterized by the altered mental state such as delirium, stupor, or coma.[30] Other clinical features in neuroimaging confirmed Marchiafava–Bignami syndrome (MBS) cases include impaired gait, dysarthria, mutism, signs of split-brain syndrome, pyramidal tract signs, primitive reflexes, rigidity, incontinence, gaze palsy, diplopia, and sensory symptoms.[30] Neuropsychiatric manifestations are common and include psychotic symptoms, depression, apathy, aggressive behavior, and sometimes dementia.[29] MRI scan shows lesions of the corpus callosum, particularly splenium. Treatment for this condition is mostly supportive and use of nutritional supplements and steroids. However, there are several reports of improvement of this syndrome with thiamine at variable doses including reports of beneficial effects with high-dose strategy.[29],[30],[31] Early initiation of thiamine, preferably within 2 weeks of the onset of symptoms is associated with a better outcome. Therefore, high-dose thiamine should be administered to all suspected cases of MBS.

Laboratory Diagnosis of Thiamine Deficiency Estimation of thiamine and thiamine pyrophosphate levels may confirm the diagnosis of deficiency. Levels of thiamine in the blood are not reliable indicators of thiamine status. Low erythrocyte transketolase activity is also helpful.[32],[33] Transketolase concentrations of <120 nmol/L have also been used to indicate deficiency, while concentrations of 120–150 nmol/L suggest marginal thiamine status.[1] However, these tests are not routinely performed as it is time consuming, expensive, and may not be readily available.[34] The ETKA assay is a functional test rather than a direct measurement of thiamin status and therefore may be influenced by factors other than thiamine deficiency such as diabetes mellitus and polyneuritis.[1] Hence, treatment should be initiated in the absence of laboratory confirmation of thiamine deficiency. Furthermore, treatment should not be delayed if tests are ordered, but the results are awaited. Electroencephalographic abnormalities in thiamine deficiency states range from diffuse mild-to-moderate slow waves and are not a good diagnostic option, as the prevalence of abnormalities among patients is inconsistent.[35]Surrogate markers, which reflect chronic alcohol use and nutritional deficiency other than thiamine, may be helpful in identifying at-risk patients.

This includes gamma glutamate transferase, aspartate aminotransferase. Alanine transaminase ratio >2:1, and increased mean corpuscular volume.[36] They are useful when a reliable history of alcohol use is not readily available, specifically in emergency departments when treatment needs to be started immediately to avoid long-term consequences. Thiamine Replacement Therapy Oral versus parenteral thiamineIntestinal absorption of thiamine depends on active transport through thiamine transporter 1 and 2, which follow saturation kinetics.[1] Therefore, the rate and amount of absorption of thiamine in healthy individuals is limited. In healthy volunteers, a 10 mg dose results in maximal absorption of thiamine, and any doses higher than this do not increase thiamine levels. Therefore, the maximum amount of thiamine absorbed from 10 mg or higher dose is between 4.3 and 5.6 mg.[37] However, it has been suggested that, although thiamine transport occurs through the energy-requiring, sodium-dependent active process at physiologic concentrations, at higher supraphysiologic concentrations thiamine uptake is mostly a passive process.[38] Smithline et al.

Have demonstrated that it is possible to achieve higher serum thiamine levels with oral doses up to 1500 mg.[39]In chronic alcohol users, intestinal absorption is impaired. Hence, absorption rates are expected to be much lower. It is approximately 30% of that seen in healthy individuals, i.e., 1.5 mg of thiamine is absorbed from 10 mg oral thiamine.[3] In those consuming alcohol and have poor nutrition, not more than 0.8 mg of thiamine is absorbed.[2],[3],[6] The daily thiamine requirement is 1–1.6 mg/day, which may be more in alcohol-dependent patients at risk for Wernicke encephalopathy.[1] It is highly likely that oral supplementation with thiamine will be inadequate in alcohol-dependent individuals who continue to drink. Therefore, parenteral thiamine is preferred for supplementation in deficiency states associated with chronic alcohol use. Therapy involving parenteral thiamine is considered safe except for occasional circumstances of allergic reactions involving pruritus and local irritation.There is a small, but definite risk of anaphylaxis with parenteral thiamine, specifically with intravenous administration (1/250,000 intravenous injections).[40] Diluting thiamine in 50–100 mg normal saline for infusion may reduce the risk.

However, parenteral thiamine should always be administered under observation with the necessary facilities for resuscitation.A further important issue involves the timing of administration of thiamine relative to the course of alcohol abuse or dependence. Administration of thiamine treatment to patients experiencing alcohol withdrawal may also be influenced by other factors such as magnesium depletion, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor upregulation, or liver impairment, all of which may alter thiamine metabolism and utilization.[6],[14]Thiamine or other preparations (e.g., benfotiamine)The thiamine transporters limit the rate of absorption of orally administered thiamine. Allithiamines (e.g., benfotiamine) are the lipid-soluble thiamine derivatives that are absorbed better, result in higher thiamine levels, and are retained longer in the body.[41] The thiamine levels with orally administered benfotiamine are much higher than oral thiamine and almost equals to intravenous thiamine given at the same dosage.[42]Benfotiamine has other beneficial effects including inhibition of production of advanced glycation end products, thus protecting against diabetic vascular complications.[41] It also modulates nuclear transcription factor κB (NK-κB), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2, glycogen synthase kinase 3 β, etc., that play a role in cell repair and survival.[41] Benfotiamine has been found to be effective for the treatment of alcoholic peripheral neuropathy.[27]Dosing of thiamineAs the prevalence of thiamine deficiency is very common in chronic alcohol users, the requirement of thiamine increases in active drinkers and it is difficult to rapidly determine thiamine levels using laboratory tests, it is prudent that all patients irrespective of nutritional status should be administered parenteral thiamine. The dose should be 100 mg thiamine daily for 3–5 days during inpatient treatment. Commonly, multivitamin injections are added to intravenous infusions.

Patients at risk for thiamine deficiency should receive 250 mg of thiamine daily intramuscularly for 3–5 days, followed by oral thiamine 100 mg daily.[6]Thiamine plasma levels reduce to 20% of peak value after approximately 2 h of parenteral administration, thus reducing the effective “window period” for passive diffusion to the central nervous system.[6] Therefore, in thiamine deficient individuals with features of Wernicke encephalopathy should receive thiamine thrice daily.High-dose parenteral thiamine administered thrice daily has been advocated in patients at risk for Wernicke encephalopathy.[43] The Royal College of Physicians guideline recommends that patients with suspected Wernicke encephalopathy should receive 500 mg thiamine diluted in 50–100 ml of normal saline infusion over 30 min three times daily for 2–3 days and sometimes for longer periods.[13] If there are persistent symptoms such as confusion, cerebellar symptoms, or memory impairment, this regimen can be continued until the symptoms improve. If symptoms improve, oral thiamine 100 mg thrice daily can be continued for prolonged periods.[6],[40] A similar treatment regimen is advocated for alcoholic cerebellar degeneration as well. Doses more than 500 mg intramuscular or intravenous three times a day for 3–5 days, followed by 250 mg once daily for a further 3–5 days is also recommended by some guidelines (e.g., British Association for Psychopharmacology).[44]Other effects of thiamineThere are some data to suggest that thiamine deficiency can modulate alcohol consumption and may result in pathological drinking. Benfotiamine 600 mg/day as compared to placebo for 6 months was well tolerated and found to decrease psychiatric distress in males and reduce alcohol consumption in females with severe alcohol dependence.[45],[46] Other Factors During Thiamine Therapy Correction of hypomagnesemiaMagnesium is a cofactor for many thiamine-dependent enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism. Patients may fail to respond to thiamine supplementation in the presence of hypomagnesemia.[47] Magnesium deficiency is common in chronic alcohol users and is seen in 30% of individuals.[48],[49] It can occur because of increased renal excretion of magnesium, poor intake, decreased absorption because of Vitamin D deficiency, the formation of undissociated magnesium soaps with free fatty acids.[48],[49]The usual adult dose is 35–50 mmol of magnesium sulfate added to 1 L isotonic (saline) given over 12–24 h.[6] The dose has to be titrated against plasma magnesium levels.

It is recommended to reduce the dose in renal failure. Contraindications include patients with documented hypersensitivity and those with heart block, Addison's disease, myocardial damage, severe hepatitis, or hypophosphatemia. Do not administer intravenous magnesium unless hypomagnesemia is confirmed.[6]Other B-complex vitaminsMost patients with deficiency of thiamine will also have reduced levels of other B vitamins including niacin, pyridoxine, and cobalamin that require replenishment. For patients admitted to the intensive care unit with symptoms that may mimic or mask Wernicke encephalopathy, based on the published literature, routine supplementation during the 1st day of admission includes 200–500 mg intravenous thiamine every 8 h, 64 mg/kg magnesium sulfate (≈4–5 g for most adult patients), and 400–1000 μg intravenous folate.[50] If alcoholic ketoacidosis is suspected, dextrose-containing fluids are recommended over normal saline.[50] Precautions to be Taken When Administering Parenteral Thiamine It is recommended to monitor for anaphylaxis and has appropriate facilities for resuscitation and for treating anaphylaxis readily available including adrenaline and corticosteroids. Anaphylaxis has been reported at the rate of approximately 4/1 million pairs of ampoules of Pabrinex (a pair of high potency vitamins available in the UK containing 500 mg of thiamine (1:250,000 I/V administrations).[40] Intramuscular thiamine is reported to have a lower incidence of anaphylactic reactions than intravenous administration.[40] The reaction has been attributed to nonspecific histamine release.[51] Administer intravenous thiamine slowly, preferably by slow infusion in 100 ml normal saline over 15–30 min.

Conclusions Risk factors for thiamine deficiency should be assessed in chronic alcohol users. A high index of suspicion and a lower threshold to diagnose thiamine deficiency states including Wernicke encephalopathy is needed. Several other presentations such as cerebellar syndrome, MBS, polyneuropathy, and delirium tremens could be related to thiamine deficiency and should be treated with protocols similar to Wernicke encephalopathy. High-dose thiamine is recommended for the treatment of suspected Wernicke encephalopathy and related conditions [Figure 1]. However, evidence in terms of randomized controlled trials is lacking, and the recommendations are based on small studies and anecdotal reports.

Nevertheless, as all these conditions respond to thiamine supplementation, it is possible that these have overlapping pathophysiology and are better considered as Wernicke encephalopathy spectrum disorders.Figure 1. Thiamine recommendations for patients with alcohol use disorder. AHistory of alcohol use, but no clinical features of WE. BNo clinical features of WE, but with risk factors such as complicated withdrawal (delirium, seizures). CClinical features of WE (ataxia, opthalmoplegia, global confusion)Click here to viewFinancial support and sponsorshipNil.Conflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.

References 1.Frank LL. Thiamin in clinical practice. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2015;39:503-20. 2.Thomson AD, Marshall EJ. The natural history and pathophysiology of Wernicke's Encephalopathy and Korsakoff's Psychosis.

Alcohol Alcohol 2006;41:151-8. 3.Thomson AD, Guerrini I, Marshall EJ. Wernicke's encephalopathy. Role of thiamine. Pract Gastroenterol 2009;33:21-30.

4.Isenberg-Grzeda E, Kutner HE, Nicolson SE. Wernicke-Korsakoff-syndrome. Under-recognized and under-treated. Psychosomatics 2012;53:507-16. 5.Wood B, Currie J, Breen K.

Wernicke's encephalopathy in a metropolitan hospital. A prospective study of incidence, characteristics and outcome. Med J Aust 1986;144:12-6. 6.Thomson AD, Cook CC, Touquet R, Henry JA, Royal College of Physicians, London. The Royal College of Physicians report on alcohol.

Guidelines for managing Wernicke's encephalopathy in the accident and Emergency Department. Alcohol Alcohol 2002;37:513-21. 7.Harper C. Thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency and associated brain damage is still common throughout the world and prevention is simple and safe!. Eur J Neurol 2006;13:1078-82.

8.Harper CG, Giles M, Finlay-Jones R. Clinical signs in the Wernicke-Korsakoff complex. A retrospective analysis of 131 cases diagnosed at necropsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986;49:341-5. 9.Cook CC.

Prevention and treatment of Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. Alcohol Alcohol 2000;35:19-20. 10.Caine D, Halliday GM, Kril JJ, Harper CG. Operational criteria for the classification of chronic alcoholics. Identification of Wernicke's encephalopathy.

J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;62:51-60. 11.Sullivan EV, Pfefferbaum A. Neuroimaging of the Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. Alcohol Alcohol 2009;44:155-65. 12.Jung YC, Chanraud S, Sullivan EV.

Neuroimaging of Wernicke's encephalopathy and Korsakoff's syndrome. Neuropsychol Rev 2012;22:170-80. 13.Pruckner N, Baumgartner J, Hinterbuchinger B, Glahn A, Vyssoki S, Vyssoki B. Thiamine substitution in alcohol use disorder. A narrative review of medical guidelines.

Eur Addict Res 2019;25:103-10. 14.Day E, Bentham PW, Callaghan R, Kuruvilla T, George S. Thiamine for prevention and treatment of Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome in people who abuse alcohol. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;7:CD004033. Doi.

10.1002/14651858.CD004033.pub3. 15.Arts NJ, Walvoort SJ, Kessels RP. Korsakoff's syndrome. A critical review. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2017;13:2875-90.

16.Laureno R. Nutritional cerebellar degeneration, with comments on its relationship to Wernicke disease and alcoholism. Handb Clin Neurol 2012;103:175-87. 17.Maschke M, Weber J, Bonnet U, Dimitrova A, Bohrenkämper J, Sturm S, et al. Vermal atrophy of alcoholics correlate with serum thiamine levels but not with dentate iron concentrations as estimated by MRI.

J Neurol 2005;252:704-11. 18.Mulholland PJ, Self RL, Stepanyan TD, Little HJ, Littleton JM, Prendergast MA. Thiamine deficiency in the pathogenesis of chronic ethanol-associated cerebellar damage in vitro. Neuroscience 2005;135:1129-39. 19.Del Brutto OH, Mera RM, Sullivan LJ, Zambrano M, King NR.

Population-based study of alcoholic cerebellar degeneration. The Atahualpa Project. J Neurol Sci 2016;367:356-60. 20.Hammoud N, Jimenez-Shahed J. Chronic neurologic effects of alcohol.

Clin Liver Dis 2019;23:141-55. 21.Lee JH, Heo SH, Chang DI. Early-stage alcoholic cerebellar degeneration. Diagnostic imaging clues. J Korean Med Sci 2015;30:1539.

22.Phillips SC, Harper CG, Kril JJ. The contribution of Wernicke's encephalopathy to alcohol-related cerebellar damage. Drug Alcohol Rev 1990;9:53-60. 23.Baker KG, Harding AJ, Halliday GM, Kril JJ, Harper CG. Neuronal loss in functional zones of the cerebellum of chronic alcoholics with and without Wernicke's encephalopathy.

Neuroscience 1999;91:429-38. 24.Graham JR, Woodhouse D, Read FH. Massive thiamine dosage in an alcoholic with cerebellar cortical degeneration. Lancet 1971;2:107. 25.Julian T, Glascow N, Syeed R, Zis P.

Alcohol-related peripheral neuropathy. A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol 2018;22:1-3. 26.Chopra K, Tiwari V. Alcoholic neuropathy.

Possible mechanisms and future treatment possibilities. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2012;73:348-62. 27.Woelk H, Lehrl S, Bitsch R, Köpcke W. Benfotiamine in treatment of alcoholic polyneuropathy. An 8-week randomized controlled study (BAP I Study).

Alcohol Alcohol 1998;33:631-8. 28.Peters TJ, Kotowicz J, Nyka W, Kozubski W, Kuznetsov V, Vanderbist F, et al. Treatment of alcoholic polyneuropathy with vitamin B complex. A randomised controlled trial. Alcohol Alcohol 2006;41:636-42.

29.Fernandes LM, Bezerra FR, Monteiro MC, Silva ML, de Oliveira FR, Lima RR, et al. Thiamine deficiency, oxidative metabolic pathways and ethanol-induced neurotoxicity. How poor nutrition contributes to the alcoholic syndrome, as Marchiafava-Bignami disease. Eur J Clin Nutr 2017;71:580-6. 30.Hillbom M, Saloheimo P, Fujioka S, Wszolek ZK, Juvela S, Leone MA.

Diagnosis and management of Marchiafava-Bignami disease. A review of CT/MRI confirmed cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2014;85:168-73. 31.Nemlekar SS, Mehta RY, Dave KR, Shah ND. Marchiafava.

Bignami disease treated with parenteral thiamine. Indian J Psychol Med 2016;38:147-9. [Full text] 32.Brin M. Erythrocyte transketolase in early thiamine deficiency. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1962;98:528-41.

33.Dreyfus PM. Clinical application of blood transketolase determinations. N Engl J Med 1962;267:596-8. 34.Edwards KA, Tu-Maung N, Cheng K, Wang B, Baeumner AJ, Kraft CE. Thiamine assays – Advances, challenges, and caveats.

ChemistryOpen 2017;6:178-91. 35.Chandrakumar A, Bhardwaj A, 't Jong GW. Review of thiamine deficiency disorders. Wernicke encephalopathy and Korsakoff psychosis. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 2018;30:153-62.

36.Torruellas C, French SW, Medici V. Diagnosis of alcoholic liver disease. World J Gastroenterol 2014;20:11684-99. 37.Thomson AD, Leevy CM. Observations on the mechanism of thiamine hydrochloride absorption in man.

Clin Sci 1972;43:153-63. 38.Hoyumpa AM Jr., Strickland R, Sheehan JJ, Yarborough G, Nichols S. Dual system of intestinal thiamine transport in humans. J Lab Clin Med 1982;99:701-8. 39.Smithline HA, Donnino M, Greenblatt DJ.

Pharmacokinetics of high-dose oral thiamine hydrochloride in healthy subjects. BMC Clin Pharmacol 2012;12:4. 40.Latt N, Dore G. Thiamine in the treatment of Wernicke encephalopathy in patients with alcohol use disorders. Intern Med J 2014;44:911-5.

41.Raj V, Ojha S, Howarth FC, Belur PD, Subramanya SB. Therapeutic potential of benfotiamine and its molecular targets. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2018;22:3261-73. 42.Xie F, Cheng Z, Li S, Liu X, Guo X, Yu P, et al. Pharmacokinetic study of benfotiamine and the bioavailability assessment compared to thiamine hydrochloride.

J Clin Pharmacol 2014;54:688-95. 43.Cook CC, Hallwood PM, Thomson AD. B Vitamin deficiency and neuropsychiatric syndromes in alcohol misuse. Alcohol Alcohol 1998;33:317-36. 44.Lingford-Hughes AR, Welch S, Peters L, Nutt DJ, British Association for Psychopharmacology, Expert Reviewers Group.

BAP updated guidelines. Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological management of substance abuse, harmful use, addiction and comorbidity. Recommendations from BAP. J Psychopharmacol 2012;26:899-952. 45.Manzardo AM, He J, Poje A, Penick EC, Campbell J, Butler MG.

Double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of benfotiamine for severe alcohol dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013;133:562-70. 46.Manzardo AM, Pendleton T, Poje A, Penick EC, Butler MG. Change in psychiatric symptomatology after benfotiamine treatment in males is related to lifetime alcoholism severity. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015;152:257-63.

47.Dingwall KM, Delima JF, Gent D, Batey RG. Hypomagnesaemia and its potential impact on thiamine utilisation in patients with alcohol misuse at the Alice Springs Hospital. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015;34:323-8. 48.Flink EB. Magnesium deficiency in alcoholism.

Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1986;10:590-4. 49.Grochowski C, Blicharska E, Baj J, Mierzwińska A, Brzozowska K, Forma A, et al. Serum iron, magnesium, copper, and manganese levels in alcoholism. A systematic review. Molecules 2019;24:E1361.

50.Flannery AH, Adkins DA, Cook AM. Unpeeling the evidence for the banana bag. Evidence-based recommendations for the management of alcohol-associated vitamin and electrolyte deficiencies in the ICU. Crit Care Med 2016;44:1545-52. 51.Lagunoff D, Martin TW, Read G.

Agents that release histamine from mast cells. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1983;23:331-51. Correspondence Address:Samir Kumar PraharajDepartment of Psychiatry, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka IndiaSource of Support. None, Conflict of Interest. NoneDOI.

10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_440_20 Figures [Figure 1].

How to http://demand.connectad.io/how-to-buy-zithromax/ cite where to buy cialis this article:Singh OP. The National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, 2020 and its implication for mental health. Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:119-20The National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, 2020 has been notified on March 28, 2021, by the Gazette of where to buy cialis India published by the Ministry of Law and Justice.

This bill aims to “provide for regulation and maintenance of standards of education and services by allied and healthcare professionals, assessment of institutions, maintenance of a Central Register and State Register and creation of a system to improve access, research and development and adoption of latest scientific advancement and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.”[1]This act has created a category of Health Care Professionals which is defined as. €œhealthcare professional” includes a scientist, therapist, or other professional who studies, advises, researches, supervises or provides preventive, curative, rehabilitative, therapeutic or promotional health services and who has obtained any qualification of degree under this Act, the duration of which shall not be <3600 h spread over a period of 3 years to 6 years divided into specific semesters.[1]According to the act, “Allied health professional” includes an associate, technician, or technologist who is trained to perform any technical and practical task to support diagnosis and treatment of illness, disease, injury or where to buy cialis impairment, and to support implementation of any healthcare treatment and referral plan recommended by a medical, nursing, or any other healthcare professional, and who has obtained any qualification of diploma or degree under this Act, the duration of which shall not be less than 2000 h spread over a period of 2 years to 4 years divided into specific semesters.”[1]It is noticeable that while the term “Health Care Professionals” does not include doctors who are registered under National Medical Council, Mental Health Care Act (MHCA), 2017 includes psychiatrists under the ambit of Mental Health Care Professionals.[2] This discrepancy needs to be corrected - psychiasts, being another group of medical specialists, should be kept out of the broad umbrella of “Mental Healthcare Professionals.”The category of Behavioural Health Sciences Professional has been included and defined as “a person who undertakes scientific study of the emotions, behaviours and biology relating to a person's mental well-being, their ability to function in everyday life and their concept of self. €œBehavioural health” is the preferred term to “mental health” and includes professionals such as counselors, analysts, psychologists, educators and support workers, who provide counseling, therapy, and mediation services to individuals, families, groups, and communities in response to social and personal difficulties.”[1]This is a welcome step to the extent that it creates a diverse category of trained workforce in the field of Mental Health (Behavioural Health Science Professionals) and tries to regulate their training although it mainly aims to promote mental wellbeing.

However there is a huge lacuna in the term of “Mental Illness” as defined by MHCA, 2017 where to buy cialis. Only severe disorders are included as per definition and there is no clarity regarding inclusion of other psychiatric disorders, namely “common mental disorders” such as anxiety and depression. This leaves a strong possibility of concept of “psychiatric illnesses” being limited to only “severe psychiatric disorders” (major where to buy cialis psychoses) thus perpetuating the stigma and alienation associated with psychiatric patients for centuries.

Psychiatrists being restricted to treating severe mental disorders as per MHCA, 2017, there is a strong possibility that the care of common mental disorders may gradually pass on under the care of “behavioural health professionals” as per the new act!. There is need to look into this aspect by the leadership where to buy cialis in psychiatry, both organizational and academic psychiatry, and reduce the contradictions between the MHCA, 2017 and this nascent act. All disorders classified in ICD 10 and DSM 5 should be classified as “Psychiatric Disorders” or “Mental Illness.” This will not only help in fighting the stigma associated with psychiatric illnesses but also promote the integration of psychiatry with other specialties.

References where to buy cialis 1.The National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, 2021. The Gazette of India. Published by Ministry where to buy cialis of Law and Justice.

28 March, 2021. 2.The Mental Healthcare where to buy cialis Act, 2017. The Gazette of India.

Published by where to buy cialis Ministry of Law and Justice. April 7, 2017. Correspondence Address:Om Prakash SinghAA 304, Ashabari Apartments, O/31, Baishnabghata, Patuli Township, Kolkata - 700 094, West Bengal IndiaSource where to buy cialis of Support.

None, Conflict of Interest. NoneDOI. 10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_268_21Abstract Thiamine is essential for the activity of several enzymes associated where to buy cialis with energy metabolism in humans.

Chronic alcohol use is associated with deficiency of thiamine along with other vitamins through several mechanisms. Several neuropsychiatric syndromes have been associated with thiamine deficiency in the context of alcohol use disorder including Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, alcoholic cerebellar syndrome, alcoholic peripheral neuropathy, and possibly, Marchiafava–Bignami syndrome where to buy cialis. High-dose thiamine replacement is suggested for these neuropsychiatric syndromes.Keywords.

Alcohol use disorder, alcoholic cerebellar syndrome, alcoholic peripheral neuropathy, Marchiafava–Bignami where to buy cialis syndrome, thiamine, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndromeHow to cite this article:Praharaj SK, Munoli RN, Shenoy S, Udupa ST, Thomas LS. High-dose thiamine strategy in Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome and related thiamine deficiency conditions associated with alcohol use disorder. Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:121-6How to cite where to buy cialis this URL:Praharaj SK, Munoli RN, Shenoy S, Udupa ST, Thomas LS.

High-dose thiamine strategy in Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome and related thiamine deficiency conditions associated with alcohol use disorder. Indian J Psychiatry [serial online] 2021 where to buy cialis [cited 2021 Jun 11];63:121-6. Available from.

Https://www.indianjpsychiatry.org/text.asp?. 2021/63/2/121/313716 Introduction Thiamine is a water-soluble vitamin (B1) that plays a key role in the activity of several enzymes associated with energy metabolism. Thiamine pyrophosphate (or diphosphate) is the active form that acts as a cofactor for enzymes.

The daily dietary requirement of thiamine in adults is 1–2 mg and is dependent on carbohydrate intake.[1],[2] The requirement increases if basal metabolic rate is higher, for example, during alcohol withdrawal state. Dietary sources include pork (being the major source), meat, legume, vegetables, and enriched foods. The body can store between 30 and 50 mg of thiamine and is likely to get depleted within 4–6 weeks if the diet is deficient.[2] In those with alcohol-related liver damage, the ability to store thiamine is gradually reduced.[1],[2]Lower thiamine levels are found in 30%–80% of chronic alcohol users.[3] Thiamine deficiency occurs due to poor intake of vitamin-rich foods, impaired intestinal absorption, decreased storage capacity of liver, damage to the renal epithelial cells due to alcohol, leading to increased loss from the kidneys, and excessive loss associated with medical conditions.[2],[3] Furthermore, alcohol decreases the absorption of colonic bacterial thiamine, reduces the enzymatic activity of thiamine pyrophosphokinase, and thereby, reducing the amount of available thiamine pyrophosphate.[4] Since facilitated diffusion of thiamine into cells is dependent on a concentration gradient, reduced thiamine pyrophosphokinase activity further reduces thiamine uptake into cells.[4] Impaired utilization of thiamine is seen in certain conditions (e.g., hypomagnesemia) which are common in alcohol use disorder.[2],[3],[4] This narrative review discusses the neuropsychiatric syndromes associated with thiamine deficiency in the context of alcohol use disorder, and the treatment regimens advocated for these conditions.

A PubMed search supplemented with manual search was used to identify neuropsychiatric syndromes related to thiamine deficiency in alcohol use disorder patients. Neuropsychiatric Syndromes Associated With Thiamine Deficiency Wernicke–Korsakoff syndromeWernicke encephalopathy is associated with chronic alcohol use, and if not identified and treated early, could lead to permanent brain damage characterized by an amnestic syndrome known as Korsakoff syndrome. Inappropriate treatment of Wernicke encephalopathy with lower doses of thiamine can lead to high mortality rates (~20%) and Korsakoff syndrome in ~ 80% of patients (ranges from 56% to 84%).[5],[6] The classic triad of Wernicke includes oculomotor abnormalities, cerebellar dysfunction, and confusion.

Wernicke lesions are found in 12.5% of brain samples of patients with alcohol dependence.[7] However, only 20%–30% of them had a clinical diagnosis of Wernicke encephalopathy antemortem. It has been found that many patients develop Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) following repeated subclinical episodes of thiamine deficiency.[7] In an autopsy report of 97 chronic alcohol users, only16% had all the three “classical signs,” 29% had two signs, 37% presented with one sign, and 19% had none.[8] Mental status changes are the most prevalent sign (seen in 82% of the cases), followed by eye signs (in 29%) and ataxia (23%).[8] WKS should be suspected in persons with a history of alcohol use and presenting with signs of ophthalmoplegia, ataxia, acute confusion, memory disturbance, unexplained hypotension, hypothermia, coma, or unconsciousness.[9] Operational criteria for the diagnosis of Wernicke encephalopathy have been proposed by Caine et al.[10] that requires two out of four features, i.e., (a) dietary deficiency (signs such as cheilitis, glossitis, and bleeding gums), (b) oculomotor abnormalities (nystagmus, opthalmoplegia, and diplopia), (c) cerebellar dysfunction (gait ataxia, nystagmus), and (d) either altered mental state (confusion) or mild memory impairment.As it is very difficult to clinically distinguish Wernicke encephalopathy from other associated conditions such as delirium tremens, hepatic encephalopathy, or head injury, it is prudent to have a lower threshold to diagnose this if any of the clinical signs is seen. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scan during Wernicke encephalopathy shows mammillary body atrophy and enlarged third ventricle, lesions in the medial portions of thalami and mid brain and can be used to aid diagnosis.[11],[12] However, most clinical situations warrant treatment without waiting for neuroimaging report.

The treatment suggestions in the guidelines vary widely. Furthermore, hardly any evidence-based recommendations exist on a more general use of thiamine as a preventative intervention in individuals with alcohol use disorder.[13] There are very few studies that have evaluated the dose and duration of thiamine for WKS, but higher doses may result in a greater response.[6],[14] With thiamine administration rapid improvement is seen in eye movement abnormalities (improve within days or weeks) and ataxia (may take months to recover), but the effects on memory, in particular, are unclear.[4],[14] Severe memory impairment is the core feature of Korsakoff syndrome. Initial stages of the disease can present with confabulation, executive dysfunction, flattened affect, apathy, and poor insight.[15] Both the episodic and semantic memory are affected, whereas, procedural memory remains intact.[15]Thomson et al.[6] suggested the following should be treated with thiamine as they are at high risk for developing WKS.

(1) all patients with any evidence of chronic alcohol misuse and any of the following. Acute confusion, decreased conscious level, ataxia, ophthalmoplegia, memory disturbance, and hypothermia with hypotension. (2) patients with delirium tremens may often also have Wernicke encephalopathy, therefore, all of these patients should be presumed to have Wernicke encephalopathy and treated, preferably as inpatients.

And (3) all hypoglycemic patients (who are treated with intravenous glucose) with evidence of chronic alcohol ingestion must be given intravenous thiamine immediately because of the risk of acutely precipitating Wernicke encephalopathy.Alcoholic cerebellar syndromeChronic alcohol use is associated with the degeneration of anterior superior vermis, leading to a clinical syndrome characterized by the subacute or chronic onset of gait ataxia and incoordination in legs, with relative sparing of upper limbs, speech, and oculomotor movements.[16] In severe cases, truncal ataxia, mild dysarthria, and incoordination of the upper limb is also found along with gait ataxia. Thiamine deficiency is considered to be the etiological factor,[17],[18] although direct toxic effects of alcohol may also contribute to this syndrome. One-third of patients with chronic use of alcohol have evidence of alcoholic cerebellar degeneration.

However, population-based studies estimate prevalence to be 14.6%.[19] The effect of alcohol on the cerebellum is graded with the most severe deficits occurring in alcohol users with the longest duration and highest severity of use. The diagnosis of cerebellar degeneration is largely clinical. MRI can be used to evaluate for vermian atrophy but is unnecessary.[20] Anterior portions of vermis are affected early, with involvement of posterior vermis and adjacent lateral hemispheres occurring late in the course could be used to differentiate alcoholic cerebellar degeneration from other conditions that cause more diffuse involvement.[21] The severity of cerebellar syndrome is more in the presence of WKS, thus could be related to thiamine deficiency.[22],[23] Therefore, this has been considered as a cerebellar presentation of WKS and should be treated in a similar way.[16] There are anecdotal evidence to suggest improvement in cerebellar syndrome with high-dose thiamine.[24]Alcoholic peripheral neuropathyPeripheral neuropathy is common in alcohol use disorder and is seen in 44% of the users.[25] It has been associated predominantly with thiamine deficiency.

However, deficiency of other B vitamins (pyridoxine and cobalamin) and direct toxic effect of alcohol is also implicated.[26] Clinically, onset of symptoms is gradual with the involvement of both sensory and motor fibers and occasionally autonomic fibers. Neuropathy can affect both small and large peripheral nerve fibers, leading to different clinical manifestations. Thiamine deficiency-related neuropathy affects larger fiber types, which results in motor deficits and sensory ataxia.

On examination, large fiber involvement is manifested by distal limb muscle weakness and loss of proprioception and vibratory sensation. Together, these can contribute to the gait unsteadiness seen in chronic alcohol users by creating a superimposed steppage gait and reduced proprioceptive input back to the movement control loops in the central nervous system. The most common presentations include painful sensations in both lower limbs, sometimes with burning sensation or numbness, which are early symptoms.

Typically, there is a loss of vibration sensation in distal lower limbs. Later symptoms include loss of proprioception, gait disturbance, and loss of reflexes. Most advanced findings include weakness and muscle atrophy.[20] Progression is very gradual over months and involvement of upper limbs may occur late in the course.

Diagnosis begins with laboratory evaluation to exclude other causes of distal, sensorimotor neuropathy including hemoglobin A1c, liver function tests, and complete blood count to evaluate for red blood cell macrocytosis. Cerebrospinal fluid studies may show increased protein levels but should otherwise be normal in cases of alcohol neuropathy and are not recommended in routine evaluation. Electromyography and nerve conduction studies can be used to distinguish whether the neuropathy is axonal or demyelinating and whether it is motor, sensory, or mixed type.

Alcoholic neuropathy shows reduced distal, sensory amplitudes, and to a lesser extent, reduced motor amplitudes on nerve conduction studies.[20] Abstinence and vitamin supplementation including thiamine are the treatments advocated for this condition.[25] In mild-to-moderate cases, near-complete improvement can be achieved.[20] Randomized controlled trials have showed a significant improvement in alcoholic polyneuropathy with thiamine treatment.[27],[28]Marchiafava–Bignami syndromeThis is a rare but fatal condition seen in chronic alcohol users that is characterized by progressive demyelination and necrosis of the corpus callosum. The association of this syndrome with thiamine deficiency is not very clear, and direct toxic effects of alcohol are also suggested.[29] The clinical syndrome is variable and presentation can be acute, subacute, or chronic. In acute forms, it is predominantly characterized by the altered mental state such as delirium, stupor, or coma.[30] Other clinical features in neuroimaging confirmed Marchiafava–Bignami syndrome (MBS) cases include impaired gait, dysarthria, mutism, signs of split-brain syndrome, pyramidal tract signs, primitive reflexes, rigidity, incontinence, gaze palsy, diplopia, and sensory symptoms.[30] Neuropsychiatric manifestations are common and include psychotic symptoms, depression, apathy, aggressive behavior, and sometimes dementia.[29] MRI scan shows lesions of the corpus callosum, particularly splenium.

Treatment for this condition is mostly supportive and use of nutritional supplements and steroids. However, there are several reports of improvement of this syndrome with thiamine at variable doses including reports of beneficial effects with high-dose strategy.[29],[30],[31] Early initiation of thiamine, preferably within 2 weeks of the onset of symptoms is associated with a better outcome. Therefore, high-dose thiamine should be administered to all suspected cases of MBS.

Laboratory Diagnosis of Thiamine Deficiency Estimation of thiamine and thiamine pyrophosphate levels may confirm the diagnosis of deficiency. Levels of thiamine in the blood are not reliable indicators of thiamine status. Low erythrocyte transketolase activity is also helpful.[32],[33] Transketolase concentrations of <120 nmol/L have also been used to indicate deficiency, while concentrations of 120–150 nmol/L suggest marginal thiamine status.[1] However, these tests are not routinely performed as it is time consuming, expensive, and may not be readily available.[34] The ETKA assay is a functional test rather than a direct measurement of thiamin status and therefore may be influenced by factors other than thiamine deficiency such as diabetes mellitus and polyneuritis.[1] Hence, treatment should be initiated in the absence of laboratory confirmation of thiamine deficiency.

Furthermore, treatment should not be delayed if tests are ordered, but the results are awaited. Electroencephalographic abnormalities in thiamine deficiency states range from diffuse mild-to-moderate slow waves and are not a good diagnostic option, as the prevalence of abnormalities among patients is inconsistent.[35]Surrogate markers, which reflect chronic alcohol use and nutritional deficiency other than thiamine, may be helpful in identifying at-risk patients. This includes gamma glutamate transferase, aspartate aminotransferase.

Alanine transaminase ratio >2:1, and increased mean corpuscular volume.[36] They are useful when a reliable history of alcohol use is not readily available, specifically in emergency departments when treatment needs to be started immediately to avoid long-term consequences. Thiamine Replacement Therapy Oral versus parenteral thiamineIntestinal absorption of thiamine depends on active transport through thiamine transporter 1 and 2, which follow saturation kinetics.[1] Therefore, the rate and amount of absorption of thiamine in healthy individuals is limited. In healthy volunteers, a 10 mg dose results in maximal absorption of thiamine, and any doses higher than this do not increase thiamine levels.

Therefore, the maximum amount of thiamine absorbed from 10 mg or higher dose is between 4.3 and 5.6 mg.[37] However, it has been suggested that, although thiamine transport occurs through the energy-requiring, sodium-dependent active process at physiologic concentrations, at higher supraphysiologic concentrations thiamine uptake is mostly a passive process.[38] Smithline et al. Have demonstrated that it is possible to achieve higher serum thiamine levels with oral doses up to 1500 mg.[39]In chronic alcohol users, intestinal absorption is impaired. Hence, absorption rates are expected to be much lower.

It is approximately 30% of that seen in healthy individuals, i.e., 1.5 mg of thiamine is absorbed from 10 mg oral thiamine.[3] In those consuming alcohol and have poor nutrition, not more than 0.8 mg of thiamine is absorbed.[2],[3],[6] The daily thiamine requirement is 1–1.6 mg/day, which may be more in alcohol-dependent patients at risk for Wernicke encephalopathy.[1] It is highly likely that oral supplementation with thiamine will be inadequate in alcohol-dependent individuals who continue to drink. Therefore, parenteral thiamine is preferred for supplementation in deficiency states associated with chronic alcohol use. Therapy involving parenteral thiamine is considered safe except for occasional circumstances of allergic reactions involving pruritus and local irritation.There is a small, but definite risk of anaphylaxis with parenteral thiamine, specifically with intravenous administration (1/250,000 intravenous injections).[40] Diluting thiamine in 50–100 mg normal saline for infusion may reduce the risk.

However, parenteral thiamine should always be administered under observation with the necessary facilities for resuscitation.A further important issue involves the timing of administration of thiamine relative to the course of alcohol abuse or dependence. Administration of thiamine treatment to patients experiencing alcohol withdrawal may also be influenced by other factors such as magnesium depletion, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor upregulation, or liver impairment, all of which may alter thiamine metabolism and utilization.[6],[14]Thiamine or other preparations (e.g., benfotiamine)The thiamine transporters limit the rate of absorption of orally administered thiamine. Allithiamines (e.g., benfotiamine) are the lipid-soluble thiamine derivatives that are absorbed better, result in higher thiamine levels, and are retained longer in the body.[41] The thiamine levels with orally administered benfotiamine are much higher than oral thiamine and almost equals to intravenous thiamine given at the same dosage.[42]Benfotiamine has other beneficial effects including inhibition of production of advanced glycation end products, thus protecting against diabetic vascular complications.[41] It also modulates nuclear transcription factor κB (NK-κB), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2, glycogen synthase kinase 3 β, etc., that play a role in cell repair and survival.[41] Benfotiamine has been found to be effective for the treatment of alcoholic peripheral neuropathy.[27]Dosing of thiamineAs the prevalence of thiamine deficiency is very common in chronic alcohol users, the requirement of thiamine increases in active drinkers and it is difficult to rapidly determine thiamine levels using laboratory tests, it is prudent that all patients irrespective of nutritional status should be administered parenteral thiamine.

The dose should be 100 mg thiamine daily for 3–5 days during inpatient treatment. Commonly, multivitamin injections are added to intravenous infusions. Patients at risk for thiamine deficiency should receive 250 mg of thiamine daily intramuscularly for 3–5 days, followed by oral thiamine 100 mg daily.[6]Thiamine plasma levels reduce to 20% of peak value after approximately 2 h of parenteral administration, thus reducing the effective “window period” for passive diffusion to the central nervous system.[6] Therefore, in thiamine deficient individuals with features of Wernicke encephalopathy should receive thiamine thrice daily.High-dose parenteral thiamine administered thrice daily has been advocated in patients at risk for Wernicke encephalopathy.[43] The Royal College of Physicians guideline recommends that patients with suspected Wernicke encephalopathy should receive 500 mg thiamine diluted in 50–100 ml of normal saline infusion over 30 min three times daily for 2–3 days and sometimes for longer periods.[13] If there are persistent symptoms such as confusion, cerebellar symptoms, or memory impairment, this regimen can be continued until the symptoms improve.

If symptoms improve, oral thiamine 100 mg thrice daily can be continued for prolonged periods.[6],[40] A similar treatment regimen is advocated for alcoholic cerebellar degeneration as well. Doses more than 500 mg intramuscular or intravenous three times a day for 3–5 days, followed by 250 mg once daily for a further 3–5 days is also recommended by some guidelines (e.g., British Association for Psychopharmacology).[44]Other effects of thiamineThere are some data to suggest that thiamine deficiency can modulate alcohol consumption and may result in pathological drinking. Benfotiamine 600 mg/day as compared to placebo for 6 months was well tolerated and found to decrease psychiatric distress in males and reduce alcohol consumption in females with severe alcohol dependence.[45],[46] Other Factors During Thiamine Therapy Correction of hypomagnesemiaMagnesium is a cofactor for many thiamine-dependent enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism.

Patients may fail to respond to thiamine supplementation in the presence of hypomagnesemia.[47] Magnesium deficiency is common in chronic alcohol users and is seen in 30% of individuals.[48],[49] It can occur because of increased renal excretion of magnesium, poor intake, decreased absorption because of Vitamin D deficiency, the formation of undissociated magnesium soaps with free fatty acids.[48],[49]The usual adult dose is 35–50 mmol of magnesium sulfate added to 1 L isotonic (saline) given over 12–24 h.[6] The dose has to be titrated against plasma magnesium levels. It is recommended to reduce the dose in renal failure. Contraindications include patients with documented hypersensitivity and those with heart block, Addison's disease, myocardial damage, severe hepatitis, or hypophosphatemia.

Do not administer intravenous magnesium unless hypomagnesemia is confirmed.[6]Other B-complex vitaminsMost patients with deficiency of thiamine will also have reduced levels of other B vitamins including niacin, pyridoxine, and cobalamin that require replenishment. For patients admitted to the intensive care unit with symptoms that may mimic or mask Wernicke encephalopathy, based on the published literature, routine supplementation during the 1st day of admission includes 200–500 mg intravenous thiamine every 8 h, 64 mg/kg magnesium sulfate (≈4–5 g for most adult patients), and 400–1000 μg intravenous folate.[50] If alcoholic ketoacidosis is suspected, dextrose-containing fluids are recommended over normal saline.[50] Precautions to be Taken When Administering Parenteral Thiamine It is recommended to monitor for anaphylaxis and has appropriate facilities for resuscitation and for treating anaphylaxis readily available including adrenaline and corticosteroids. Anaphylaxis has been reported at the rate of approximately 4/1 million pairs of ampoules of Pabrinex (a pair of high potency vitamins available in the UK containing 500 mg of thiamine (1:250,000 I/V administrations).[40] Intramuscular thiamine is reported to have a lower incidence of anaphylactic reactions than intravenous administration.[40] The reaction has been attributed to nonspecific histamine release.[51] Administer intravenous thiamine slowly, preferably by slow infusion in 100 ml normal saline over 15–30 min.

Conclusions Risk factors for thiamine deficiency should be assessed in chronic alcohol users. A high index of suspicion and a lower threshold to diagnose thiamine deficiency states including Wernicke encephalopathy is needed. Several other presentations such as cerebellar syndrome, MBS, polyneuropathy, and delirium tremens could be related to thiamine deficiency and should be treated with protocols similar to Wernicke encephalopathy.

High-dose thiamine is recommended for the treatment of suspected Wernicke encephalopathy and related conditions [Figure 1]. However, evidence in terms of randomized controlled trials is lacking, and the recommendations are based on small studies and anecdotal reports. Nevertheless, as all these conditions respond to thiamine supplementation, it is possible that these have overlapping pathophysiology and are better considered as Wernicke encephalopathy spectrum disorders.Figure 1.

Thiamine recommendations for patients with alcohol use disorder. AHistory of alcohol use, but no clinical features of WE. BNo clinical features of WE, but with risk factors such as complicated withdrawal (delirium, seizures).

CClinical features of WE (ataxia, opthalmoplegia, global confusion)Click here to viewFinancial support and sponsorshipNil.Conflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest. References 1.Frank LL. Thiamin in clinical practice.

JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2015;39:503-20. 2.Thomson AD, Marshall EJ. The natural history and pathophysiology of Wernicke's Encephalopathy and Korsakoff's Psychosis.

Alcohol Alcohol 2006;41:151-8. 3.Thomson AD, Guerrini I, Marshall EJ. Wernicke's encephalopathy.

Role of thiamine. Pract Gastroenterol 2009;33:21-30. 4.Isenberg-Grzeda E, Kutner HE, Nicolson SE.

Wernicke-Korsakoff-syndrome. Under-recognized and under-treated. Psychosomatics 2012;53:507-16.

5.Wood B, Currie J, Breen K. Wernicke's encephalopathy in a metropolitan hospital. A prospective study of incidence, characteristics and outcome.

Med J Aust 1986;144:12-6. 6.Thomson AD, Cook CC, Touquet R, Henry JA, Royal College of Physicians, London. The Royal College of Physicians report on alcohol.

Guidelines for managing Wernicke's encephalopathy in the accident and Emergency Department. Alcohol Alcohol 2002;37:513-21. 7.Harper C.

Thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency and associated brain damage is still common throughout the world and prevention is simple and safe!. Eur J Neurol 2006;13:1078-82. 8.Harper CG, Giles M, Finlay-Jones R.

Clinical signs in the Wernicke-Korsakoff complex. A retrospective analysis of 131 cases diagnosed at necropsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986;49:341-5.

9.Cook CC. Prevention and treatment of Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. Alcohol Alcohol 2000;35:19-20.

10.Caine D, Halliday GM, Kril JJ, Harper CG. Operational criteria for the classification of chronic alcoholics. Identification of Wernicke's encephalopathy.

J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;62:51-60. 11.Sullivan EV, Pfefferbaum A. Neuroimaging of the Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.

Alcohol Alcohol 2009;44:155-65. 12.Jung YC, Chanraud S, Sullivan EV. Neuroimaging of Wernicke's encephalopathy and Korsakoff's syndrome.

Neuropsychol Rev 2012;22:170-80. 13.Pruckner N, Baumgartner J, Hinterbuchinger B, Glahn A, Vyssoki S, Vyssoki B. Thiamine substitution in alcohol use disorder.

A narrative review of medical guidelines. Eur Addict Res 2019;25:103-10. 14.Day E, Bentham PW, Callaghan R, Kuruvilla T, George S.

Thiamine for prevention and treatment of Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome in people who abuse alcohol. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;7:CD004033. Doi.

10.1002/14651858.CD004033.pub3. 15.Arts NJ, Walvoort SJ, Kessels RP. Korsakoff's syndrome.

A critical review. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2017;13:2875-90. 16.Laureno R.

Nutritional cerebellar degeneration, with comments on its relationship to Wernicke disease and alcoholism. Handb Clin Neurol 2012;103:175-87. 17.Maschke M, Weber J, Bonnet U, Dimitrova A, Bohrenkämper J, Sturm S, et al.

Vermal atrophy of alcoholics correlate with serum thiamine levels but not with dentate iron concentrations as estimated by MRI. J Neurol 2005;252:704-11. 18.Mulholland PJ, Self RL, Stepanyan TD, Little HJ, Littleton JM, Prendergast MA.

Thiamine deficiency in the pathogenesis of chronic ethanol-associated cerebellar damage in vitro. Neuroscience 2005;135:1129-39. 19.Del Brutto OH, Mera RM, Sullivan LJ, Zambrano M, King NR.

Population-based study of alcoholic cerebellar degeneration. The Atahualpa Project. J Neurol Sci 2016;367:356-60.

20.Hammoud N, Jimenez-Shahed J. Chronic neurologic effects of alcohol. Clin Liver Dis 2019;23:141-55.

21.Lee JH, Heo SH, Chang DI. Early-stage alcoholic cerebellar degeneration. Diagnostic imaging clues.

J Korean Med Sci 2015;30:1539. 22.Phillips SC, Harper CG, Kril JJ. The contribution of Wernicke's encephalopathy to alcohol-related cerebellar damage.

Drug Alcohol Rev 1990;9:53-60. 23.Baker KG, Harding AJ, Halliday GM, Kril JJ, Harper CG. Neuronal loss in functional zones of the cerebellum of chronic alcoholics with and without Wernicke's encephalopathy.

Neuroscience 1999;91:429-38. 24.Graham JR, Woodhouse D, Read FH. Massive thiamine dosage in an alcoholic with cerebellar cortical degeneration.

Lancet 1971;2:107. 25.Julian T, Glascow N, Syeed R, Zis P. Alcohol-related peripheral neuropathy.

A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol 2018;22:1-3. 26.Chopra K, Tiwari V.

Alcoholic neuropathy. Possible mechanisms and future treatment possibilities. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2012;73:348-62.

27.Woelk H, Lehrl S, Bitsch R, Köpcke W. Benfotiamine in treatment of alcoholic polyneuropathy. An 8-week randomized controlled study (BAP I Study).

Alcohol Alcohol 1998;33:631-8. 28.Peters TJ, Kotowicz J, Nyka W, Kozubski W, Kuznetsov V, Vanderbist F, et al. Treatment of alcoholic polyneuropathy with vitamin B complex.

A randomised controlled trial. Alcohol Alcohol 2006;41:636-42. 29.Fernandes LM, Bezerra FR, Monteiro MC, Silva ML, de Oliveira FR, Lima RR, et al.

Thiamine deficiency, oxidative metabolic pathways and ethanol-induced neurotoxicity. How poor nutrition contributes to the alcoholic syndrome, as Marchiafava-Bignami disease. Eur J Clin Nutr 2017;71:580-6.

30.Hillbom M, Saloheimo P, Fujioka S, Wszolek ZK, Juvela S, Leone MA. Diagnosis and management of Marchiafava-Bignami disease. A review of CT/MRI confirmed cases.

J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2014;85:168-73. 31.Nemlekar SS, Mehta RY, Dave KR, Shah ND. Marchiafava.

Bignami disease treated with parenteral thiamine. Indian J Psychol Med 2016;38:147-9. [Full text] 32.Brin M.

Erythrocyte transketolase in early thiamine deficiency. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1962;98:528-41. 33.Dreyfus PM.

Clinical application of blood transketolase determinations. N Engl J Med 1962;267:596-8. 34.Edwards KA, Tu-Maung N, Cheng K, Wang B, Baeumner AJ, Kraft CE.

Thiamine assays – Advances, challenges, and caveats. ChemistryOpen 2017;6:178-91. 35.Chandrakumar A, Bhardwaj A, 't Jong GW.

Review of thiamine deficiency disorders. Wernicke encephalopathy and Korsakoff psychosis. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 2018;30:153-62.

36.Torruellas C, French SW, Medici V. Diagnosis of alcoholic liver disease. World J Gastroenterol 2014;20:11684-99.

37.Thomson AD, Leevy CM. Observations on the mechanism of thiamine hydrochloride absorption in man. Clin Sci 1972;43:153-63.

38.Hoyumpa AM Jr., Strickland R, Sheehan JJ, Yarborough G, Nichols S. Dual system of intestinal thiamine transport in humans. J Lab Clin Med 1982;99:701-8.

39.Smithline HA, Donnino M, Greenblatt DJ. Pharmacokinetics of high-dose oral thiamine hydrochloride in healthy subjects. BMC Clin Pharmacol 2012;12:4.

40.Latt N, Dore G. Thiamine in the treatment of Wernicke encephalopathy in patients with alcohol use disorders. Intern Med J 2014;44:911-5.

41.Raj V, Ojha S, Howarth FC, Belur PD, Subramanya SB. Therapeutic potential of benfotiamine and its molecular targets. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2018;22:3261-73.

42.Xie F, Cheng Z, Li S, Liu X, Guo X, Yu P, et al. Pharmacokinetic study of benfotiamine and the bioavailability assessment compared to thiamine hydrochloride. J Clin Pharmacol 2014;54:688-95.

43.Cook CC, Hallwood PM, Thomson AD. B Vitamin deficiency and neuropsychiatric syndromes in alcohol misuse. Alcohol Alcohol 1998;33:317-36.

44.Lingford-Hughes AR, Welch S, Peters L, Nutt DJ, British Association for Psychopharmacology, Expert Reviewers Group. BAP updated guidelines. Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological management of substance abuse, harmful use, addiction and comorbidity.

Recommendations from BAP. J Psychopharmacol 2012;26:899-952. 45.Manzardo AM, He J, Poje A, Penick EC, Campbell J, Butler MG.

Double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of benfotiamine for severe alcohol dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013;133:562-70. 46.Manzardo AM, Pendleton T, Poje A, Penick EC, Butler MG.

Change in psychiatric symptomatology after benfotiamine treatment in males is related to lifetime alcoholism severity. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015;152:257-63. 47.Dingwall KM, Delima JF, Gent D, Batey RG.

Hypomagnesaemia and its potential impact on thiamine utilisation in patients with alcohol misuse at the Alice Springs Hospital. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015;34:323-8. 48.Flink EB.

Magnesium deficiency in alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1986;10:590-4. 49.Grochowski C, Blicharska E, Baj J, Mierzwińska A, Brzozowska K, Forma A, et al.

Serum iron, magnesium, copper, and manganese levels in alcoholism. A systematic review. Molecules 2019;24:E1361.

50.Flannery AH, Adkins DA, Cook AM. Unpeeling the evidence for the banana bag. Evidence-based recommendations for the management of alcohol-associated vitamin and electrolyte deficiencies in the ICU.

Crit Care Med 2016;44:1545-52. 51.Lagunoff D, Martin TW, Read G. Agents that release histamine from mast cells.

Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1983;23:331-51. Correspondence Address:Samir Kumar PraharajDepartment of Psychiatry, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka IndiaSource of Support. None, Conflict of Interest.

NoneDOI. 10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_440_20 Figures [Figure 1].

Cialis instructions

Over the last decade, Medicare Advantage, the private plan alternative to traditional Medicare, has taken on a larger role cialis instructions in the Medicare program. In 2020, more than 24 million Medicare beneficiaries are enrolled in a Medicare Advantage plan. This brief provides an overview of the Medicare Advantage plans that are available for 2021 and key trends over time.Plan Offerings in 2021Number cialis instructions of PlansNumber of Plans Available to Beneficiaries.

For 2021, the average Medicare beneficiary has access to 33 Medicare Advantage plans, the largest number of options available in the last decade (Figure 1).Figure 1. The average Medicare beneficiary has access to 33 Medicare Advantage plans in 2021, an increase from prior yearsAmong the 33 Medicare Advantage plans generally available for individual enrollment to the average Medicare beneficiary, 27 of the plans include cialis instructions prescription drug coverage (MA-PDs). These numbers exclude employer or union-sponsored group plans, Special Needs Plans (SNPs) and PACE plans, which are only available to select populations.Total Number of Plans.

In total, 3,550 Medicare Advantage cialis instructions plans are available nationwide for individual enrollment in 2021 – a 13 percent increase (402 more plans) from 2020 and the largest number of plans ever available (Figure 2. Appendix Table 1). The vast majority (89 percent) cialis instructions of all Medicare Advantage plans offered include prescription drug coverage in 2021.

.As in prior years, HMOs continue to account for about two-thirds (62%) of all plans offered in 2021. The availability of local PPOs has increased rapidly over recent cialis instructions years. In 2021, one-third of plans offered are local PPOs, compared to a quarter in 2018.

Between 2020 and 2021, the number of regional PPOs has remained constant, cialis instructions while the number of private fee-for-service plans has continued to decline.The growth in number of plans varies across states and counties, with the preponderance of the growth occurring in Florida and California (41 more and 30 more plans, respectively. Data not shown). Virginia has 6 fewer plans available for 2021 than in 2020, while South Carolina has 3 fewer plans, and Maryland and Nebraska each have one fewer plan available in 2021 than in 2020.While many employers and unions also offer Medicare Advantage plans to their retirees, no information about these 2021 plan offerings cialis instructions is made available by CMS to the public during the Medicare open enrollment period because these plans are not available to the general Medicare population.One notable change for 2021 is that people with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) are eligible to enroll in Medicare Advantage plans.

Prior to this change, people with ESRD were not able to enroll in most Medicare Advantage plans, subject to limited exceptions, such as C-SNPS for people with ESRD.Special Needs Plans (SNPs). More SNPs are available for 2021 than in any year since they were authorized, increasing from 855 plans in 2020 to 975 plans in 2021, a 14 percent increase (Figure 3). .The rise in SNPs for people who require cialis instructions an institutional-level of care (I-SNPs) has been particularly notable, more than doubling from 83 plans in 2017 to 174 plans in 2021.

I-SNPs may be attractive to insurers because they tend to have much lower marketing costs than other plan types since they are often the only available option for people to receive their Medicare benefits in certain retirement communities and nursing homes. The number of SNPs for people dually eligible for Medicare and cialis instructions Medicaid (D-SNPs) has also increased sharply over the past five years, rising from 373 dual SNPs in 2017 to 598 dual SNPs in 2021, a 60% increase, suggesting insurers’ continue to be interested in managing the care of this high-need population.The number of SNPs offered for people with chronic conditions (C-SNPs) is also increasing in 2021, most of which focus on people with diabetes, heart disease, or lung conditions, as has been the case since the inception of C-SNPs. For 2021, three firms are offering C-SNPs for people with dementia (the same as 2020), two firms are offering a C-SNP for people with mental health conditions (up one from 2020), three firms are offering C-SNPs for people with end-stage renal disease (one fewer than 2020) and two firms are offering C-SNPs for people with HIV/AIDS (similar to 2020).Variation in the Number of Plans, by Geographic Area.

On average, beneficiaries in metropolitan areas can choose from about twice as many Medicare Advantage plans as beneficiaries in non-metropolitan areas (36 plans versus 20 plans, respectively).In 11 percent of cialis instructions counties (accounting for 41% of beneficiaries), beneficiaries can choose from more than 35 plans in 2021, including eleven counties in Ohio and five counties in Pennsylvania where more than 60 Medicare Advantage plans are available (Figure 4). In contrast, in 4 percent of counties (accounting for 1% of beneficiaries), beneficiaries can choose from two or fewer Medicare Advantage plans. The number of counties with no cialis instructions Medicare Advantage plans for 2021 is 82, similar to 2020.

As in prior years, there are no Medicare Advantage plans offered in Alaska. Additionally, no cialis instructions Medicare Advantage plans are available in territories other than Puerto Rico. .Access to Medicare Advantage Plans, by Plan TypeAs in recent years, virtually all Medicare beneficiaries (99%) have access to a Medicare Advantage plan as an alternative to traditional Medicare, including almost all beneficiaries in metropolitan areas (99.9%) and the vast majority of beneficiaries in non-metropolitan areas (97.7%).

In non-metropolitan cialis instructions counties, a smaller share of beneficiaries have access to HMOs (87% in non-metropolitan versus 99% in metropolitan counties) or local PPOs (89% in non-metropolitan versus 96% in metropolitan counties), and a slightly larger share of beneficiaries have access to regional PPOs (77% in non-metropolitan counties versus 72% in metropolitan counties). Number of FirmsThe average Medicare beneficiary is able to choose from plans offered by 8 firms in 2021, one more than in 2020 (Figure 5). Despite most beneficiaries having access to plans operated by cialis instructions several different firms, enrollment is concentrated in plans operated by UnitedHealthcare, Humana, and Blue Cross Blue Shield affiliates.Figure 5.

More than one-quarter of beneficiaries can choose among Medicare Advantage plans offered by 10 or more firmsMore than one-quarter of beneficiaries (27%) are able to choose from plans offered by 10 or more firms. Fifteen or more firms are offering Medicare Advantage plans in three counties. Orange County, California and Summit and Medina Counties in Ohio cialis instructions.

In contrast, in 109 counties, most of which are rural counties with relatively few Medicare beneficiaries (1% of total), only one firm will offer Medicare Advantage plans in 2021. Over the past several years, the number of counties with a single firm offering Medicare cialis instructions Advantage plans has fallen substantially. As recently as 2019, there was a single firm offering plans in nearly 200 counties.UnitedHealthcare and Humana, the two firms with the most Medicare Advantage enrollees in 2020, have large footprints across the country, offering plans in most counties.

Humana is offering plans in 84 percent of counties cialis instructions and UnitedHealthcare is offering plans in 66 percent of counties in 2021 (Figure 6). More than 8 in 10 (87%) Medicare beneficiaries have access to at least one Humana plan and 86 percent have access to at least one UnitedHealthcare plans. .Most major Medicare cialis instructions Advantage firms have also expanded the number of counties where they are offering plans.

UnitedHealthcare is offering plans in 2,117 counties in 2021, an increase of 245 from 2021, while Humana is offering plans in 2,703 counties in 2021, an increase of 33 from 2020. Centene is offering plans in 1,129 counties in cialis instructions 2021, an increase of 261 plans from 2020. Blue Cross Blue Shield Affiliates are offering plans in 1,181 counties, an increase of 152 plans.

CVS Health is offering plans in 1,759 counties, an cialis instructions increase of 119 plans. And Cigna is offering plans in 369 counties, an increase of 67 plans. Kaiser Permanente had the smallest growth and is offering plans in 109 counties, an increase of 4 plans.New Market Entrants and ExitsMedicare Advantage continues to be an attractive market for insurers, with 14 firms entering the market for the first time in 2021, collectively accounting for about 6 percent of the growth in the number of cialis instructions plans available for general enrollment and about 10 percent of the growth in SNPs (Appendix Table 2).

Nine new entrants are offering HMOs available for individual enrollment. Five of the new entrants are offering cialis instructions SNPs. Three firms are offering D-SNPs for people dually eligible for Medicaid, three firms are offering C-SNPs for people with select chronic conditions, and one firm is offering an I-SNPs Four of the new firm entrants are offering plans in California, two are offering plans in Indiana, and the remainder are offering plans in at least one of ten other states (Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Texas, Utah, and Wisconsin).Six firms that previously participated in the Medicare Advantage market are not offering plans in 2021.

Two of the firms (ApexHealth, Inc. And Clarion Health) offered plans for cialis instructions the first time in 2020, but did not appear to enroll any participants. The other four firms had very low enrollment in 2020.

Three of the six exiting firms offered plans in New York.PremiumsThe vast majority of Medicare Advantage cialis instructions plans for individual enrollment (89%) will include prescription drug coverage (MA-PDs), and 54 percent of these plans will charge no premium, other than the Part B premium, similar to 2020. More than nine out of ten beneficiaries (96%) have access to a MA-PD with no monthly premium in 2021. However, in Wyoming, beneficiaries do not have access to a zero-premium MA-PD, and in Idaho, less than half of beneficiaries have access to cialis instructions a zero-premium MA-PD.In 2020, 60 percent of enrollees in MA-PD plans pay no premium other than the Medicare Part B premium of $144.60 per month.

Based on enrollment in March 2020, nearly one in five enrollees (18%) pay at least $50 a month, and 6 percent pay $100 or more. CMS announced that the average monthly plan premium among all Medicare Advantage enrollees in 2021, including those who pay no premium for their Medicare Advantage plan, is expected to decrease 11 percent from 2020 cialis instructions to $21 a month. CMS does not disclose the methods or assumptions used in deriving their calculations, but since most Medicare Advantage enrollees pay no additional premium, the average they report is heavily influenced by zero-premium plans, and does not reflect the average premium paid by those who are in plans with an additional premium.Extra BenefitsMedicare Advantage plans may provide extra benefits that are not available in traditional Medicare, are considered “primarily health related,” and can use rebate dollars (including bonus payments) to help cover the cost of these extra benefits.

Beginning in 2019, CMS expanded cialis instructions the definition of “primarily health related” to allow Medicare Advantage plans to offer additional supplemental benefits. Medicare Advantage plans may also restrict the availability of these extra benefits to certain subgroups of beneficiaries, such as those with diabetes or congestive heart failure, making different benefits available to different enrollees.Beginning in 2020, Medicare Advantage plans have also been able to offer extra benefits that are not primarily health related for chronically ill beneficiaries, known as Special Supplemental Benefits for the Chronically Ill (SSBCI). Information on the availability of SSBCI for 2021 has not yet cialis instructions been published by CMS, but may include services such as pest control, food and produce (beyond a limited basis), and non-medical transportation.

Since plans are permitted to offer these benefits non-uniformly to enrollees, it will be important to examine how these benefits are distributed across subgroups of enrollees.Availability of Extra Benefits in Plans for General Enrollment. Historically, the cialis instructions most offered extra benefits were fitness, dental, vision, and hearing. Nearly two-thirds of plans (68%) provide all four of these benefits for 2021.

Though these benefits are widely available, the scope of specific services varies. For example, a cialis instructions dental benefit may include cleanings only or more comprehensive coverage. As of 2020, Medicare Advantage plans have also been allowed to offer more telehealth benefits than traditional Medicare (though Medicare has temporarily expanded these benefits during the cialis).

The vast majority (98%) of Medicare Advantage plans are offering telehealth in 2021 (up from 91% in cialis instructions 2020) (Figure 7).Figure 7. Most Medicare Advantage plans provide fitness and dental benefits but much fewer provide in-home or caregiver supportOther extra benefits that are frequently offered for 2021 include over the counter items (75%), meal benefits, such as a cooking class, nutrition education, or meal delivery (55%), and transportation benefits (36%).Less than 10 percent of plans provide bathroom safety devices (6%) or in-home support (6%).Availability of Extra Benefits in Special Needs Plans. SNPs are designed cialis instructions to serve a disproportionately high-need population, and a somewhat larger percentage of SNPs than plans for other Medicare beneficiaries provide their enrollees with over the counter items (91%), transportation benefits (85%) and meal benefits (63%).

Similar to plans available for general enrollment, a relatively small share of SNPs provide bathroom safety devices (11%) or in-home support (18%).Access to Extra Benefits. Virtually all Medicare beneficiaries live in a county where at least one Medicare Advantage plan available for general enrollment has some extra benefits not covered by traditional Medicare, with 98% having access to some dental, fitness, vision, and cialis instructions hearing benefits for 2021. The vast majority of beneficiaries also have access to telehealth benefits (99%), over the counter items (99%), transportation assistance (95%) and a meal benefit (98%), but far fewer have access to bathroom safety (55%) or in-home support (62%).DiscussionMore Medicare Advantage plans are being offered for 2021 than in any other year.

Fourteen insurers are entering the Medicare cialis instructions Advantage market for the first time, and six insurers are exiting the market, suggesting thatMedicare Advantage remains an attractive, profitable market for insurers. As in prior years, some (mostly non-metropolitan) counties are less attractive to insurers, with fewer firms and plans available, though the number of areas where this is the case has declined over time. Overall, more than 99 percent of cialis instructions beneficiaries will have access to one or more Medicare Advantage plans in 2021, similar to prior years.

With more firms offering SNPs and the number of SNPs rapidly growing, there may be greater focus on how well high-need, vulnerable beneficiaries are being served by Medicare Advantage plans, including SNPs as well as plans for general enrollment. As Medicare Advantage enrollment continues to grow, insurers seem to be responding by offering more plans cialis instructions and choices to the people on Medicare. This analysis focuses on the Medicare Advantage marketplace in 2021 and trends over time.

The analysis includes more than 24 million enrollees in Medicare Advantage plans in 2020.Data on Medicare Advantage plan availability, enrollment, and premiums were collected from a set of data files released by the Centers for Medicare &. Medicaid Services (CMS):Medicare Advantage plan landscape files, released each fall prior to the annual enrollment periodMedicare Advantage plan and premium files, released each fallMedicare Advantage plan crosswalk files, cialis instructions released each fallMedicare Advantage contract/plan/state/county level enrollment files, released on a monthly basisMedicare Advantage plan benefit package files, released each fallMedicare Enrollment Dashboard files, released on a monthly basisIn previous years, KFF has used the Medicare Advantage Penetration Files to calculate the number of Medicare beneficiaries eligible for Medicare. The Medicare Advantage Penetration Files includes people who were previously, but no longer covered by Medicare (e.g., people who obtained employer-sponsored health insurance coverage after initially enrolling in Medicare).

It also includes people within 5 months of their 65th birthday, but cialis instructions not yet age 65. In addition, CMS has identified an issue where beneficiaries with multiple addresses were double counted in the Penetration File. KFF has refined its approach this year and is using the Medicare Enrollment Dashboard to cialis instructions calculate the number of Medicare beneficiaries because it only includes Medicare beneficiaries with either Part A or Part B coverage, which is a more accurate estimate of the Medicare population.

The numbers published here supersede all prior estimates by KFF of the number of Medicare beneficiaries.Jeannie Fuglesten Biniek, Meredith Freed, and Tricia Neuman are with KFF.Anthony Damico is an independent consultant.During the Medicare open enrollment period from October 15 to December 7 each year, beneficiaries can enroll in a plan that provides Part D drug coverage, either a stand-alone prescription drug plan (PDP) as a supplement to traditional Medicare, or a Medicare Advantage prescription drug plan (MA-PD), which covers all Medicare benefits, including drugs. Among the 46 million Part D enrollees in 2020, 20.2 million (44%) are in PDPs and 19.3 million (41%) are in MA-PDs (excluding the cialis instructions 7.0 million (15%) in employer-only group PDPs and MA-PDs). This issue brief provides an overview of Medicare Part D drug plans that will be available in 2021 and key trends over time.Part D Plan AvailabilityThe Average Medicare Beneficiary Has a Choice of Nearly 60 Medicare Plans with Part D Drug Coverage in 2021, Including 30 Medicare Stand-alone Drug Plans and 27 Medicare Advantage Drug PlansFigure 1.

The Average Medicare Beneficiary Has a Choice of Nearly 60 Medicare Plans Offering Drug cialis instructions Coverage in 2021, Including 30 Stand-alone Drug Plans and 27 Medicare Advantage Drug PlansA larger number of Part D plans will be offered in 2021 than in recent years. The average Medicare beneficiary will have a choice of 30 stand-alone PDPs in 2021, two more PDP options than in 2020, and eight more than in 2017, a 36% increase (Figure 1). Although the number of PDP options in 2021 is half of what it was at the peak in 2007 cialis instructions (when there were 56 PDP options, on average), this is the fourth year in a row with an increase in the average number of stand-alone drug plan options.In 2021, beneficiaries will also have access to 27 MA-PDs, on average, a 71% increase in MA-PD options since 2017 (excluding Medicare Advantage plans that do not offer the drug benefit and plans not available to all beneficiaries.

Overall, an average of 33 Medicare Advantage plan options will be available in 2021).Based on September 2020 enrollment, 8 out of 10 PDP enrollees (80%) in 2021 are projected to be in PDPs operated by just four firms. UnitedHealth, Centene (which acquired WellCare in 2020), Humana, and CVS Health (based cialis instructions on PDP enrollment as of September 2020). All four firms offer PDPs in all 34 PDP regions in 2021.A Total of 996 Medicare Part D Stand-Alone Prescription Drug Plans Will Be Offered in 2021, a 5% Increase From 2020 and a 34% Increase Since 2017 Figure 2.

A Total of 996 Medicare Part D Stand-Alone Prescription Drug Plans Will Be Offered in 2021, a 5% Increase From 2020 and a 34% Increase Since 2017​A total of 996 PDPs will be offered in the 34 PDP regions in 2021 (plus another 11 PDPs in the territories), an increase of 48 PDPs (5%) over 2020, and 250 more PDPs (a 34% increase) since 2017 (Figure 2). This increase is cialis instructions primarily due to the Trump Administration’s elimination of the “meaningful difference” requirement for enhanced benefit PDPs offered by the same organization in the same region. Eliminating this requirement means that PDP sponsors no longer have to demonstrate that their enhanced PDPs offered in the same region are meaningfully different in terms of enrollee out-of-pocket costs.

In 2021, 62% of PDPs cialis instructions (618 plans) will offer enhanced Part D benefits—a 60% increase in the availability of enhanced-benefit PDPs since 2017, when just over half of PDPs (387 plans) offered enhanced benefits.The number of PDPs per region in 2021 will range from 25 PDPs in Alaska to 35 PDPs in Texas and will be the same or higher in 32 of the 34 PDP regions compared to 2020 (see map, Table 1). Part D PremiumsThe Estimated Average Monthly Premium for Medicare PDPs Is Projected to Increase by 9% to $41 in 2021, Based on Current EnrollmentFigure 3. The Estimated Average Monthly Premium for Medicare PDPs Is Projected to Increase by 9% to $41 in 2021, Based on Current Enrollment​The estimated national average monthly PDP premium for 2021 is projected to increase by 9% cialis instructions to $41, from $38 in 2021, weighted by September 2020 enrollment (Figure 3).

It is likely that the actual average weighted premium for 2021, after taking into account enrollment choices by new enrollees and plan changes by current enrollees, will be somewhat lower than the estimated average. CMS reported that the average premium for basic Part D coverage offered by PDPs and MA-PDs will be an estimated $30 in cialis instructions 2021. Our premium estimate is higher because it is based on PDPs only (excluding MA-PDs) and includes PDPs offering both basic and enhanced coverage (enhanced plans, which account for 62% of all PDPs in 2021, have higher premiums than basic plans, on average).Average Monthly Premiums for the 21 National Part D Stand-alone PDPs Are Projected to Range from $7 to $89 in 2021, with Higher Average Premiums for Enhanced Benefits and Zero-Deductible PDPsFigure 4.

Average Monthly Premiums cialis instructions for the 21 National Part D Stand-alone Drug Plans Are Projected to Range from $7 to $89 in 2021​PDP premiums will vary widely across plans in 2021, as in previous years (Figure 4, Table 2). Among the 21 PDPs available nationwide, average premiums will range from a low of $7 per month for SilverScript SmartRx to a high of $89 per month for AARP MedicareRx Preferred.Changes to premiums from 2020 to 2021, averaged across regions and weighted by 2020 enrollment, also vary widely across PDPs, as do the absolute amounts of monthly premiums for 2021.The 1.9 million non-LIS enrollees in the largest PDP, CVS Health’s SilverScript Choice (which had a total of 3.9 million enrollees in 2020, including those receiving low-income subsidies) will face a modest $1 (2%) decrease in their average monthly premium, from $29 in 2020 to $28 in 2021.In contrast, the 1.8 million non-LIS enrollees in the second largest PDP, AARP MedicareRx Preferred, will face a $10 (12%) increase in their average monthly premium between 2020 and 2021, from $79 to $89. This is the highest monthly premium among the national PDPs in 2021.The 1.3 million non-LIS enrollees in the fourth cialis instructions largest PDP, Humana Premier Rx, will see a $7 (13%) increase in their monthly premium, from $58 in 2020 to $65 in 2021.Most Part D stand-alone drug plans in 2021 (62% of PDPs) will offer enhanced benefits for a higher monthly premium.

Enhanced benefits can include a lower (or no) deductible, reduced cost sharing, or a higher initial coverage limit than under the standard benefit design. The average premium in 2021 for enhanced benefit PDPs is $51, which is 55% cialis instructions higher than the monthly premium for PDPs offering the basic benefit ($33) (weighted by September 2020 enrollment).In 2021, a large majority of PDPs (86%) will charge a deductible, with most PDPs (67%) charging the standard amount of $445 in 2021. Across all PDPs, the average deductible in 2021 will be $345 (weighted by September 2020 enrollment).

The average monthly premium in 2021 for PDPs that charge no deductible is $88, nearly three times the monthly premium for PDPs that charge the standard deductible cialis instructions ($34) or a partial deductible ($31) (weighted by September 2020 enrollment).Nearly 8 in 10 Part D Stand-alone Drug Plan Enrollees Without Low-income Subsidies Will Pay Higher Premiums in 2021 If They Stay in Their Current PlanFigure 5. Nearly 8 in 10 Part D Stand-alone Drug Plan Enrollees Without Low-income Subsidies Will Pay Higher Premiums in 2021 If They Stay in Their Current Plan​Most (78%, or 10 million) of the 13.4 million Part D PDP enrollees who are responsible for paying the entire premium (which excludes Low-Income Subsidy (LIS) recipients) will see their monthly premium increase in 2021 if they stay in their same plan, while 2.8 million (21%) will see a premium reduction if they stay in their same plan (Figure 5).Nearly 2 million non-LIS enrollees (13%) will see a premium increase of $10 or more per month, while significantly fewer (0.2 million non-LIS enrollees, or 1%) will see a premium reduction of the same magnitude. One-third (34%) of non-LIS enrollees (4.6 million) are projected to pay monthly premiums of at least $60 if they stay in their current plans, and more than 230,000 (2% of non-LIS enrollees) are projected to pay monthly premiums of at least $100.The Average Monthly Part D Premium in 2021 for the Subset of Enhanced Stand-alone Drug Plans Covering Insulin at a $35 Monthly Copay Is Substantially Higher Than Premiums for Other PDPsFigure 6.

The Average Monthly Part D Premium in 2021 for the Subset of Enhanced Stand-alone Drug Plans Covering Insulin at cialis instructions a $35 Monthly Copay is Substantially Higher than Premiums for Other Plans​New for 2021, beneficiaries in each state will have the option to enroll in a Part D plan participating in the Trump Administration’s new Innovation Center model in which enhanced drug plans cover insulin products at a monthly copayment of $35 in the deductible, initial coverage, and coverage gap phases of the Part D benefit. Participating plans do not have to cover all insulin products at the $35 monthly copayment amount, just one of each dosage form (vial, pen) and insulin type (rapid-acting, short-acting, intermediate-acting, and long-acting).In 2021, a total of 1,635 enhanced Part D plans will participate in this model, which represents just over 30% of both PDPs (310 plans) and MA-PDs (1,325 plans) available in 2021, including plans in the territories. Between 8 and 10 enhanced PDPs in each region are participating in the model, in addition to multiple cialis instructions MA-PDs (see map).

The average premium in 2021 for the subset of enhanced PDPs participating in the insulin $35 copay model ($59) is nearly twice as high as the monthly premium for basic PDPs ($33) and 61% higher than the average premium for enhanced PDPs that are not participating in the model ($37) (weighted by September 2020 enrollment). Part D Cost SharingPart D Enrollees Will Pay Much Higher Cost-Sharing Amounts for Brands and Non-preferred Drugs Than For Drugs on a Generic Tier, and a Mix of Copays and Coinsurance for cialis instructions Different Formulary TiersFigure 7. In 2021, Part D Enrollees Will Pay Much Higher Cost-Sharing Amounts for Brands and Non-preferred Drugs than for Drugs on a Generic Tier, and a Mix of Copays and Coinsurance for Different Formulary Tiers​In 2021, as in prior years, Part D enrollees will face much higher cost-sharing amounts for brands and non-preferred drugs (which can include both brands and generics) than for drugs on a generic tier, and a mix of copayments and coinsurance for different formulary tiers (Figure 7).

The typical five-tier formulary cialis instructions design in Part D includes tiers for preferred generics, generics, preferred brands, non-preferred drugs, and specialty drugs. Among all PDPs, median standard cost sharing in 2021 is $0 for preferred generics and $5 for generics (an increase from $4 in 2020), $40 for preferred brands (a decrease from $42 in 2020), 40% coinsurance for non-preferred drugs (an increase from 38% in 2020. The maximum allowed is 50%), and 25% cialis instructions coinsurance for specialty drugs (the same as in 2020.

The maximum allowed is 33%).Among the 21 national PDPs, 13 PDPs, covering 9.3 million enrollees as of September 2020, are increasing cost-sharing amounts for drugs on at least one formulary tier between 2020 and 2021 (Table 3). Five PDPs are increasing copayments for generics, with increases ranging from cialis instructions $1 to $4. Six PDPs are increasing copayments for preferred brands, with increases ranging from $3 to $10.

And 10 PDPs are increasing coinsurance for non-preferred drugs, with increases ranging from 2 percentage points (e.g., from a 38% coinsurance rate cialis instructions to 40%) to 14 percentage points (e.g., from a 35% coinsurance rate to 49%).Low-Income Subsidy Plan AvailabilityIn 2021, 259 Part D Stand-Alone Drug Plans Will Be Premium-Free to Enrollees Receiving the Low-Income Subsidy (Benchmark Plans)Figure 8. In 2021, 259 Part D Stand-Alone Drug Plans Will Be Available Without a Premium to Enrollees Receiving the Low-Income Subsidy (“Benchmark” Plans)​In 2021, a larger number of PDPs will be premium-free benchmark plans—that is, PDPs available for no monthly premium to Medicare Part D enrollees receiving the Low-Income Subsidy (LIS)—than in recent years, with 259 premium-free benchmark plans, or roughly a quarter of all PDPs in 2021 (Figure 8). Through the Part D LIS program, enrollees with low incomes and modest assets are eligible for assistance with Part D plan premiums and cost sharing.

As of 2020, approximately 13 million Part D enrollees are receiving LIS, including 6.7 million (52%) in PDPs and 6.1 million (48%) in MA-PDs.On average (weighted by Medicare enrollment), LIS beneficiaries have eight benchmark plans available cialis instructions to them for 2021, or about one-fourth the average number of PDP choices available overall. All LIS enrollees can select any plan offered in their area, but if they enroll in a non-benchmark plan, they must pay some portion of their chosen plan’s monthly premium. In 2021, 10% of all LIS PDP enrollees who are eligible for premium-free Part D coverage (0.6 million LIS enrollees) will pay Part D premiums averaging $33 per month unless they switch or are reassigned by CMS to premium-free plans.The number of benchmark plans available cialis instructions in 2021 will vary by region, from five to 10 (see map).

In 2020, 89% of the 6.6 million LIS PDP enrollees are projected to be in PDPs operated by five firms. CVS Health, Centene, Humana, UnitedHealth, and Cigna cialis instructions (based on 2020 enrollment). DiscussionOur analysis of the Medicare Part D stand-alone drug plan landscape for 2021 shows that millions of Part D enrollees without low-income subsidies will face premium and other cost increases in 2021 if they stay in their current stand-alone drug plan.

There are more plans available nationwide in 2021, with Medicare beneficiaries having 30 PDP cialis instructions choices during this year’s open enrollment period, plus 27 Medicare Advantage drug plan options. Most Part D PDP enrollees who remain in the same plan in 2021 will be in a plan with the standard $445 deductible and will face much higher cost sharing for brands than for generic drugs, including as much as 50% coinsurance for non-preferred drugs.Some Part D enrollees who choose to stay in their current plans may see lower premiums and other costs for their drug coverage, but nearly 8 in 10 non-LIS enrollees will face higher premiums if they remain in their current plan, and many will also face higher deductibles and cost sharing for covered drugs. Some beneficiaries might find the best coverage and costs for their specific medications in a plan with a relatively low premium, while for other beneficiaries, a higher-premium plan cialis instructions might be more suitable.

Because Part D plans vary in a number of ways that can have a significant effect on an enrollee’s out-of-pocket spending, beyond the monthly premium, all Part D enrollees could benefit from the opportunity to compare plans during open enrollment.Juliette Cubanski is with KFF.Anthony Damico is an independent consultant. This analysis focuses on the Medicare Part D cialis instructions stand-alone prescription drug plan marketplace in 2021 and trends over time. The analysis includes 20.2 million enrollees in stand-alone PDPs, as of March 2020.

The analysis excludes 17.4 million MA-PD enrollees (non-employer), and another 4.6 million enrollees in employer-group only PDPs and 2.3 million in employer-group only MA-PDs for whom plan premium and benefits data are unavailable.Data on Part D plan availability, cialis instructions enrollment, and premiums were collected from a set of data files released by the Centers for Medicare &. Medicaid Services (CMS):– Part D plan landscape files, released each fall prior to the annual enrollment period– Part D plan and premium files, released each fall– Part D plan crosswalk files, released each fall– Part D contract/plan/state/county level enrollment files, released on a monthly basis– Part D Low-Income Subsidy enrollment files, released each spring– Medicare plan benefit package files, released each fallIn this analysis, premium estimates are weighted by September 2020 enrollment unless otherwise noted. Percentage increases are calculated based on non-rounded estimates and in some cases differ from percentage calculations calculated based on rounded estimates presented in the text..

Over the last decade, Medicare https://www.greenstealth.com/buy-real-lasix-online/ Advantage, where to buy cialis the private plan alternative to traditional Medicare, has taken on a larger role in the Medicare program. In 2020, more than 24 million Medicare beneficiaries are enrolled in a Medicare Advantage plan. This brief provides an overview of the Medicare Advantage plans that are available for 2021 and key trends over time.Plan Offerings in where to buy cialis 2021Number of PlansNumber of Plans Available to Beneficiaries.

For 2021, the average Medicare beneficiary has access to 33 Medicare Advantage plans, the largest number of options available in the last decade (Figure 1).Figure 1. The average Medicare beneficiary has access to 33 Medicare Advantage plans in 2021, an increase from prior yearsAmong the 33 where to buy cialis Medicare Advantage plans generally available for individual enrollment to the average Medicare beneficiary, 27 of the plans include prescription drug coverage (MA-PDs). These numbers exclude employer or union-sponsored group plans, Special Needs Plans (SNPs) and PACE plans, which are only available to select populations.Total Number of Plans.

In total, 3,550 Medicare Advantage plans are available nationwide for individual enrollment in 2021 – a 13 percent increase (402 more plans) from 2020 and the largest number where to buy cialis of plans ever available (Figure 2. Appendix Table 1). The vast majority (89 percent) of all Medicare Advantage plans offered include where to buy cialis prescription drug coverage in 2021.

.As in prior years, HMOs continue to account for about two-thirds (62%) of all plans offered in 2021. The availability of local where to buy cialis PPOs has increased rapidly over recent years. In 2021, one-third of plans offered are local PPOs, compared to a quarter in 2018.

Between 2020 and 2021, the number of regional PPOs has remained constant, while the number of private fee-for-service plans has continued to decline.The growth in number of plans varies across states and counties, with the preponderance of the growth occurring in where to buy cialis Florida and California (41 more and 30 more plans, respectively. Data not shown). Virginia has 6 fewer plans available for 2021 than in 2020, while South Carolina has 3 fewer plans, and Maryland and Nebraska each have one fewer plan available in 2021 where to buy cialis than in 2020.While many employers and unions also offer Medicare Advantage plans to their retirees, no information about these 2021 plan offerings is made available by CMS to the public during the Medicare open enrollment period because these plans are not available to the general Medicare population.One notable change for 2021 is that people with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) are eligible to enroll in Medicare Advantage plans.

Prior to this change, people with ESRD were not able to enroll in most Medicare Advantage plans, subject to limited exceptions, such as C-SNPS for people with ESRD.Special Needs Plans (SNPs). More SNPs are available for 2021 than in any year since they were authorized, increasing from 855 plans in 2020 to 975 plans in 2021, a 14 percent increase (Figure 3). .The rise in SNPs for people who where to buy cialis require an institutional-level of care (I-SNPs) has been particularly notable, more than doubling from 83 plans in 2017 to 174 plans in 2021.

I-SNPs may be attractive to insurers because they tend to have much lower marketing costs than other plan types since they are often the only available option for people to receive their Medicare benefits in certain retirement communities and nursing homes. The number of SNPs for people dually eligible for where to buy cialis Medicare and Medicaid (D-SNPs) has also increased sharply over the past five years, rising from 373 dual SNPs in 2017 to 598 dual SNPs in 2021, a 60% increase, suggesting insurers’ continue to be interested in managing the care of this high-need population.The number of SNPs offered for people with chronic conditions (C-SNPs) is also increasing in 2021, most of which focus on people with diabetes, heart disease, or lung conditions, as has been the case since the inception of C-SNPs. For 2021, three firms are offering C-SNPs for people with dementia (the same as 2020), two firms are offering a C-SNP for people with mental health conditions (up one from 2020), three firms are offering C-SNPs for people with end-stage renal disease (one fewer than 2020) and two firms are offering C-SNPs for people with HIV/AIDS (similar to 2020).Variation in the Number of Plans, by Geographic Area.

On average, beneficiaries in metropolitan areas can choose from about twice as many Medicare Advantage plans as beneficiaries in non-metropolitan where to buy cialis areas (36 plans versus 20 plans, respectively).In 11 percent of counties (accounting for 41% of beneficiaries), beneficiaries can choose from more than 35 plans in 2021, including eleven counties in Ohio and five counties in Pennsylvania where more than 60 Medicare Advantage plans are available (Figure 4). In contrast, in 4 percent of counties (accounting for 1% of beneficiaries), beneficiaries can choose from two or fewer Medicare Advantage plans. The number of counties with no where to buy cialis Medicare Advantage plans for 2021 is 82, similar to 2020.

As in prior years, there are no Medicare Advantage plans offered in Alaska. Additionally, no Medicare Advantage where to buy cialis plans are available in territories other than Puerto Rico. .Access to Medicare Advantage Plans, by Plan TypeAs in recent years, virtually all Medicare beneficiaries (99%) have access to a Medicare Advantage plan as an alternative to traditional Medicare, including almost all beneficiaries in metropolitan areas (99.9%) and the vast majority of beneficiaries in non-metropolitan areas (97.7%).

In non-metropolitan counties, a smaller share of beneficiaries have access to HMOs (87% in non-metropolitan versus 99% in metropolitan counties) or local PPOs (89% in non-metropolitan versus 96% in metropolitan counties), and a slightly where to buy cialis larger share of beneficiaries have access to regional PPOs (77% in non-metropolitan counties versus 72% in metropolitan counties). Number of FirmsThe average Medicare beneficiary is able to choose from plans offered by 8 firms in 2021, one more than in 2020 (Figure 5). Despite most beneficiaries having access to plans operated by several different firms, enrollment is concentrated in plans operated by UnitedHealthcare, Humana, and Blue Cross Blue Shield affiliates.Figure 5 where to buy cialis.

More than one-quarter of beneficiaries can choose among Medicare Advantage plans offered by 10 or more firmsMore than one-quarter of beneficiaries (27%) are able to choose from plans offered by 10 or more firms. Fifteen or more firms are offering Medicare Advantage plans in three counties. Orange County, California and Summit and where to buy cialis Medina Counties in Ohio.

In contrast, in 109 counties, most of which are rural counties with relatively few Medicare beneficiaries (1% of total), only one firm will offer Medicare Advantage plans in 2021. Over the past several years, the number of counties with a single firm where to buy cialis offering Medicare Advantage plans has fallen substantially. As recently as 2019, there was a single firm offering plans in nearly 200 counties.UnitedHealthcare and Humana, the two firms with the most Medicare Advantage enrollees in 2020, have large footprints across the country, offering plans in most counties.

Humana is offering plans in 84 percent of counties and UnitedHealthcare is offering where to buy cialis plans in 66 percent of counties in 2021 (Figure 6). More than 8 in 10 (87%) Medicare beneficiaries have access to at least one Humana plan and 86 percent have access to at least one UnitedHealthcare plans. .Most major Medicare Advantage firms where to buy cialis have also expanded the number of counties where they are offering plans.

UnitedHealthcare is offering plans in 2,117 counties in 2021, an increase of 245 from 2021, while Humana is offering plans in 2,703 counties in 2021, an increase of 33 from 2020. Centene is offering plans where to buy cialis in 1,129 counties in 2021, an increase of 261 plans from 2020. Blue Cross Blue Shield Affiliates are offering plans in 1,181 counties, an increase of 152 plans.

CVS Health is offering plans in 1,759 counties, an increase of 119 plans where to buy cialis. And Cigna is offering plans in 369 counties, an increase of 67 plans. Kaiser Permanente had the smallest growth and is offering plans in 109 counties, an increase of 4 plans.New Market Entrants and ExitsMedicare Advantage continues to be an attractive market for insurers, with 14 firms entering the market for the first time in 2021, collectively accounting for about 6 percent of the growth in the number of where to buy cialis plans available for general enrollment and about 10 percent of the growth in SNPs (Appendix Table 2).

Nine new entrants are offering HMOs available for individual enrollment. Five of the where to buy cialis new entrants are offering SNPs. Three firms are offering D-SNPs for people dually eligible for Medicaid, three firms are offering C-SNPs for people with select chronic conditions, and one firm is offering an I-SNPs Four of the new firm entrants are offering plans in California, two are offering plans in Indiana, and the remainder are offering plans in at least one of ten other states (Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Texas, Utah, and Wisconsin).Six firms that previously participated in the Medicare Advantage market are not offering plans in 2021.

Two of the firms (ApexHealth, Inc. And Clarion Health) offered plans for the first time in 2020, but did not appear to where to buy cialis enroll any participants. The other four firms had very low enrollment in 2020.

Three of the six exiting firms offered plans in New York.PremiumsThe vast majority of Medicare Advantage plans for individual enrollment (89%) will include prescription drug coverage (MA-PDs), where to buy cialis and 54 percent of these plans will charge no premium, other than the Part B premium, similar to 2020. More than nine out of ten beneficiaries (96%) have access to a MA-PD with no monthly premium in 2021. However, in Wyoming, beneficiaries do not have access to a zero-premium MA-PD, and in Idaho, less than half of beneficiaries have access to a zero-premium MA-PD.In 2020, 60 percent of enrollees in MA-PD plans pay no premium other than the Medicare Part B premium of where to buy cialis $144.60 per month.

Based on enrollment in March 2020, nearly one in five enrollees (18%) pay at least $50 a month, and 6 percent pay $100 or more. CMS announced that the average monthly plan premium among all Medicare Advantage enrollees in 2021, including those who pay no premium for their Medicare Advantage plan, is expected to decrease 11 percent from 2020 to where to buy cialis $21 a month. CMS does not disclose the methods or assumptions used in deriving their calculations, but since most Medicare Advantage enrollees pay no additional premium, the average they report is heavily influenced by zero-premium plans, and does not reflect the average premium paid by those who are in plans with an additional premium.Extra BenefitsMedicare Advantage plans may provide extra benefits that are not available in traditional Medicare, are considered “primarily health related,” and can use rebate dollars (including bonus payments) to help cover the cost of these extra benefits.

Beginning in 2019, CMS expanded the definition of “primarily health related” to allow Medicare where to buy cialis Advantage plans to offer additional supplemental benefits. Medicare Advantage plans may also restrict the availability of these extra benefits to certain subgroups of beneficiaries, such as those with diabetes or congestive heart failure, making different benefits available to different enrollees.Beginning in 2020, Medicare Advantage plans have also been able to offer extra benefits that are not primarily health related for chronically ill beneficiaries, known as Special Supplemental Benefits for the Chronically Ill (SSBCI). Information on the availability of SSBCI for 2021 has where to buy cialis not yet been published by CMS, but may include services such as pest control, food and produce (beyond a limited basis), and non-medical transportation.

Since plans are permitted to offer these benefits non-uniformly to enrollees, it will be important to examine how these benefits are distributed across subgroups of enrollees.Availability of Extra Benefits in Plans for General Enrollment. Historically, the most offered extra benefits were fitness, dental, where to buy cialis vision, and hearing. Nearly two-thirds of plans (68%) provide all four of these benefits for 2021.

Though these benefits are widely available, the scope of specific services varies. For example, a where to buy cialis dental benefit may include cleanings only or more comprehensive coverage. As of 2020, Medicare Advantage plans have also been allowed to offer more telehealth benefits than traditional Medicare (though Medicare has temporarily expanded these benefits during the cialis).

The vast majority (98%) of Medicare Advantage plans are offering telehealth in 2021 (up from 91% in 2020) (Figure where to buy cialis 7).Figure 7. Most Medicare Advantage plans provide fitness and dental benefits but much fewer provide in-home or caregiver supportOther extra benefits that are frequently offered for 2021 include over the counter items (75%), meal benefits, such as a cooking class, nutrition education, or meal delivery (55%), and transportation benefits (36%).Less than 10 percent of plans provide bathroom safety devices (6%) or in-home support (6%).Availability of Extra Benefits in Special Needs Plans. SNPs are where to buy cialis designed to serve a disproportionately high-need population, and a somewhat larger percentage of SNPs than plans for other Medicare beneficiaries provide their enrollees with over the counter items (91%), transportation benefits (85%) and meal benefits (63%).

Similar to plans available for general enrollment, a relatively small share of SNPs provide bathroom safety devices (11%) or in-home support (18%).Access to Extra Benefits. Virtually all Medicare beneficiaries live in a county where at least one Medicare Advantage plan available for general enrollment has some extra benefits not covered where to buy cialis by traditional Medicare, with 98% having access to some dental, fitness, vision, and hearing benefits for 2021. The vast majority of beneficiaries also have access to telehealth benefits (99%), over the counter items (99%), transportation assistance (95%) and a meal benefit (98%), but far fewer have access to bathroom safety (55%) or in-home support (62%).DiscussionMore Medicare Advantage plans are being offered for 2021 than in any other year.

Fourteen insurers are entering the where to buy cialis Medicare Advantage market for the first time, and six insurers are exiting the market, suggesting thatMedicare Advantage remains an attractive, profitable market for insurers. As in prior years, some (mostly non-metropolitan) counties are less attractive to insurers, with fewer firms and plans available, though the number of areas where this is the case has declined over time. Overall, more than 99 percent of where to buy cialis beneficiaries will have access to one or more Medicare Advantage plans in 2021, similar to prior years.

With more firms offering SNPs and the number of SNPs rapidly growing, there may be greater focus on how well high-need, vulnerable beneficiaries are being served by Medicare Advantage plans, including SNPs as well as plans for general enrollment. As Medicare Advantage enrollment continues to grow, insurers seem to be responding by offering more plans where to buy cialis and choices to the people on Medicare. This analysis focuses on the Medicare Advantage marketplace in 2021 and trends over time.

The analysis includes more than 24 million enrollees in Medicare Advantage plans in 2020.Data on Medicare Advantage plan availability, enrollment, and premiums were collected from a set of data files released by the Centers for Medicare &. Medicaid Services (CMS):Medicare Advantage plan landscape files, released each fall prior to the annual enrollment periodMedicare Advantage plan and premium files, released each fallMedicare Advantage plan crosswalk files, released each fallMedicare where to buy cialis Advantage contract/plan/state/county level enrollment files, released on a monthly basisMedicare Advantage plan benefit package files, released each fallMedicare Enrollment Dashboard files, released on a monthly basisIn previous years, KFF has used the Medicare Advantage Penetration Files to calculate the number of Medicare beneficiaries eligible for Medicare. The Medicare Advantage Penetration Files includes people who were previously, but no longer covered by Medicare (e.g., people who obtained employer-sponsored health insurance coverage after initially enrolling in Medicare).

It also includes people within where to buy cialis 5 months of their 65th birthday, but not yet age 65. In addition, CMS has identified an issue where beneficiaries with multiple addresses were double counted in the Penetration File. KFF has refined its approach this year and is using the Medicare Enrollment Dashboard to calculate the number of Medicare beneficiaries because it only includes Medicare beneficiaries with either Part A or Part B coverage, which is a more accurate estimate of the Medicare where to buy cialis population.

The numbers published here supersede all prior estimates by KFF of the number of Medicare beneficiaries.Jeannie Fuglesten Biniek, Meredith Freed, and Tricia Neuman are with KFF.Anthony Damico is an independent consultant.During the Medicare open enrollment period from October 15 to December 7 each year, beneficiaries can enroll in a plan that provides Part D drug coverage, either a stand-alone prescription drug plan (PDP) as a supplement to traditional Medicare, or a Medicare Advantage prescription drug plan (MA-PD), which covers all Medicare benefits, including drugs. Among the 46 million Part D enrollees in 2020, 20.2 million (44%) are in PDPs and 19.3 million (41%) are in MA-PDs (excluding the 7.0 million where to buy cialis (15%) in employer-only group PDPs and MA-PDs). This issue brief provides an overview of Medicare Part D drug plans that will be available in 2021 and key trends over time.Part D Plan AvailabilityThe Average Medicare Beneficiary Has a Choice of Nearly 60 Medicare Plans with Part D Drug Coverage in 2021, Including 30 Medicare Stand-alone Drug Plans and 27 Medicare Advantage Drug PlansFigure 1.

The Average Medicare Beneficiary Has a Choice of Nearly 60 Medicare Plans Offering Drug Coverage in 2021, Including 30 Stand-alone Drug where to buy cialis Plans and 27 Medicare Advantage Drug PlansA larger number of Part D plans will be offered in 2021 than in recent years. The average Medicare beneficiary will have a choice of 30 stand-alone PDPs in 2021, two more PDP options than in 2020, and eight more than in 2017, a 36% increase (Figure 1). Although the number of PDP options in 2021 is half of what it was at the peak in 2007 (when there were 56 PDP options, on average), this is the fourth year in a row with an increase in the average number of stand-alone drug plan options.In 2021, where to buy cialis beneficiaries will also have access to 27 MA-PDs, on average, a 71% increase in MA-PD options since 2017 (excluding Medicare Advantage plans that do not offer the drug benefit and plans not available to all beneficiaries.

Overall, an average of 33 Medicare Advantage plan options will be available in 2021).Based on September 2020 enrollment, 8 out of 10 PDP enrollees (80%) in 2021 are projected to be in PDPs operated by just four firms. UnitedHealth, Centene where to buy cialis (which acquired WellCare in 2020), Humana, and CVS Health (based on PDP enrollment as of September 2020). All four firms offer PDPs in all 34 PDP regions in 2021.A Total of 996 Medicare Part D Stand-Alone Prescription Drug Plans Will Be Offered in 2021, a 5% Increase From 2020 and a 34% Increase Since 2017 Figure 2.

A Total of 996 Medicare Part D Stand-Alone Prescription Drug Plans Will Be Offered in 2021, a 5% Increase From 2020 and a 34% Increase Since 2017​A total of 996 PDPs will be offered in the 34 PDP regions in 2021 (plus another 11 PDPs in the territories), an increase of 48 PDPs (5%) over 2020, and 250 more PDPs (a 34% increase) since 2017 (Figure 2). This increase is primarily where to buy cialis due to the Trump Administration’s elimination of the “meaningful difference” requirement for enhanced benefit PDPs offered by the same organization in the same region. Eliminating this requirement means that PDP sponsors no longer have to demonstrate that their enhanced PDPs offered in the same region are meaningfully different in terms of enrollee out-of-pocket costs.

In 2021, 62% of PDPs (618 plans) will offer enhanced Part D benefits—a 60% increase in the availability of enhanced-benefit PDPs since 2017, when just over half of PDPs (387 plans) offered enhanced benefits.The number of PDPs per region in 2021 where to buy cialis will range from 25 PDPs in Alaska to 35 PDPs in Texas and will be the same or higher in 32 of the 34 PDP regions compared to 2020 (see map, Table 1). Part D PremiumsThe Estimated Average Monthly Premium for Medicare PDPs Is Projected to Increase by 9% to $41 in 2021, Based on Current EnrollmentFigure 3. The Estimated Average Monthly Premium for Medicare PDPs Is Projected to Increase by 9% to $41 in 2021, Based on Current Enrollment​The estimated national average monthly PDP premium for 2021 where to buy cialis is projected to increase by 9% to $41, from $38 in 2021, weighted by September 2020 enrollment (Figure 3).

It is likely that the actual average weighted premium for 2021, after taking into account enrollment choices by new enrollees and plan changes by current enrollees, will be somewhat lower than the estimated average. CMS reported that the average premium for basic Part D coverage offered by PDPs and MA-PDs will where to buy cialis be an estimated $30 in 2021. Our premium estimate is higher because it is based on PDPs only (excluding MA-PDs) and includes PDPs offering both basic and enhanced coverage (enhanced plans, which account for 62% of all PDPs in 2021, have higher premiums than basic plans, on average).Average Monthly Premiums for the 21 National Part D Stand-alone PDPs Are Projected to Range from $7 to $89 in 2021, with Higher Average Premiums for Enhanced Benefits and Zero-Deductible PDPsFigure 4.

Average Monthly Premiums for where to buy cialis the 21 National Part D Stand-alone Drug Plans Are Projected to Range from $7 to $89 in 2021​PDP premiums will vary widely across plans in 2021, as in previous years (Figure 4, Table 2). Among the 21 PDPs available nationwide, average premiums will range from a low of $7 per month for SilverScript SmartRx to a high of $89 per month for AARP MedicareRx Preferred.Changes to premiums from 2020 to 2021, averaged across regions and weighted by 2020 enrollment, also vary widely across PDPs, as do the absolute amounts of monthly premiums for 2021.The 1.9 million non-LIS enrollees in the largest PDP, CVS Health’s SilverScript Choice (which had a total of 3.9 million enrollees in 2020, including those receiving low-income subsidies) will face a modest $1 (2%) decrease in their average monthly premium, from $29 in 2020 to $28 in 2021.In contrast, the 1.8 million non-LIS enrollees in the second largest PDP, AARP MedicareRx Preferred, will face a $10 (12%) increase in their average monthly premium between 2020 and 2021, from $79 to $89. This is the highest monthly premium among the national PDPs in 2021.The 1.3 million non-LIS enrollees in the fourth largest PDP, Humana Premier Rx, will see a $7 (13%) increase in their monthly premium, from $58 in 2020 to $65 in 2021.Most Part D stand-alone drug plans in 2021 (62% of PDPs) will offer enhanced where to buy cialis benefits for a higher monthly premium.

Enhanced benefits can include a lower (or no) deductible, reduced cost sharing, or a higher initial coverage limit than under the standard benefit design. The average premium in 2021 for enhanced benefit PDPs is $51, which is 55% higher than the monthly premium for PDPs offering the basic benefit ($33) (weighted by September 2020 enrollment).In 2021, a large majority of PDPs (86%) will charge a deductible, with most PDPs (67%) charging the standard amount of $445 where to buy cialis in 2021. Across all PDPs, the average deductible in 2021 will be $345 (weighted by September 2020 enrollment).

The average monthly premium in where to buy cialis 2021 for PDPs that charge no deductible is $88, nearly three times the monthly premium for PDPs that charge the standard deductible ($34) or a partial deductible ($31) (weighted by September 2020 enrollment).Nearly 8 in 10 Part D Stand-alone Drug Plan Enrollees Without Low-income Subsidies Will Pay Higher Premiums in 2021 If They Stay in Their Current PlanFigure 5. Nearly 8 in 10 Part D Stand-alone Drug Plan Enrollees Without Low-income Subsidies Will Pay Higher Premiums in 2021 If They Stay in Their Current Plan​Most (78%, or 10 million) of the 13.4 million Part D PDP enrollees who are responsible for paying the entire premium (which excludes Low-Income Subsidy (LIS) recipients) will see their monthly premium increase in 2021 if they stay in their same plan, while 2.8 million (21%) will see a premium reduction if they stay in their same plan (Figure 5).Nearly 2 million non-LIS enrollees (13%) will see a premium increase of $10 or more per month, while significantly fewer (0.2 million non-LIS enrollees, or 1%) will see a premium reduction of the same magnitude. One-third (34%) of non-LIS enrollees (4.6 million) are projected to pay monthly premiums of at least $60 if they stay in their current plans, and more than 230,000 (2% of non-LIS enrollees) are projected to pay monthly premiums of at least $100.The Average Monthly Part D Premium in 2021 for the Subset of Enhanced Stand-alone Drug Plans Covering Insulin at a $35 Monthly Copay Is Substantially Higher Than Premiums for Other PDPsFigure 6.

The Average Monthly Part D Premium in 2021 for the Subset of Enhanced Stand-alone Drug Plans Covering Insulin at a $35 Monthly Copay is Substantially Higher than Premiums for Other Plans​New for 2021, beneficiaries in each state will have the option to enroll in a Part D plan participating in the Trump Administration’s new Innovation Center where to buy cialis model in which enhanced drug plans cover insulin products at a monthly copayment of $35 in the deductible, initial coverage, and coverage gap phases of the Part D benefit. Participating plans do not have to cover all insulin products at the $35 monthly copayment amount, just one of each dosage form (vial, pen) and insulin type (rapid-acting, short-acting, intermediate-acting, and long-acting).In 2021, a total of 1,635 enhanced Part D plans will participate in this model, which represents just over 30% of both PDPs (310 plans) and MA-PDs (1,325 plans) available in 2021, including plans in the territories. Between 8 and 10 enhanced where to buy cialis PDPs in each region are participating in the model, in addition to multiple MA-PDs (see map).

The average premium in 2021 for the subset of enhanced PDPs participating in the insulin $35 copay model ($59) is nearly twice as high as the monthly premium for basic PDPs ($33) and 61% higher than the average premium for enhanced PDPs that are not participating in the model ($37) (weighted by September 2020 enrollment). Part D Cost SharingPart D Enrollees Will Pay Much Higher Cost-Sharing Amounts for Brands and Non-preferred Drugs Than For Drugs on a Generic Tier, and a Mix of Copays and Coinsurance for where to buy cialis Different Formulary TiersFigure 7. In 2021, Part D Enrollees Will Pay Much Higher Cost-Sharing Amounts for Brands and Non-preferred Drugs than for Drugs on a Generic Tier, and a Mix of Copays and Coinsurance for Different Formulary Tiers​In 2021, as in prior years, Part D enrollees will face much higher cost-sharing amounts for brands and non-preferred drugs (which can include both brands and generics) than for drugs on a generic tier, and a mix of copayments and coinsurance for different formulary tiers (Figure 7).

The typical five-tier formulary design in where to buy cialis Part D includes tiers for preferred generics, generics, preferred brands, non-preferred drugs, and specialty drugs. Among all PDPs, median standard cost sharing in 2021 is $0 for preferred generics and $5 for generics (an increase from $4 in 2020), $40 for preferred brands (a decrease from $42 in 2020), 40% coinsurance for non-preferred drugs (an increase from 38% in 2020. The maximum allowed where to buy cialis is 50%), and 25% coinsurance for specialty drugs (the same as in 2020.

The maximum allowed is 33%).Among the 21 national PDPs, 13 PDPs, covering 9.3 million enrollees as of September 2020, are increasing cost-sharing amounts for drugs on at least one formulary tier between 2020 and 2021 (Table 3). Five PDPs are increasing copayments for generics, with increases ranging from where to buy cialis $1 to $4. Six PDPs are increasing copayments for preferred brands, with increases ranging from $3 to $10.

And 10 PDPs are increasing coinsurance for non-preferred drugs, with increases ranging from 2 percentage points (e.g., from a 38% coinsurance rate to 40%) to 14 percentage points (e.g., from a 35% coinsurance rate to 49%).Low-Income Subsidy Plan AvailabilityIn 2021, 259 Part D Stand-Alone Drug Plans Will Be Premium-Free to Enrollees where to buy cialis Receiving the Low-Income Subsidy (Benchmark Plans)Figure 8. In 2021, 259 Part D Stand-Alone Drug Plans Will Be Available Without a Premium to Enrollees Receiving the Low-Income Subsidy (“Benchmark” Plans)​In 2021, a larger number of PDPs will be premium-free benchmark plans—that is, PDPs available for no monthly premium to Medicare Part D enrollees receiving the Low-Income Subsidy (LIS)—than in recent years, with 259 premium-free benchmark plans, or roughly a quarter of all PDPs in 2021 (Figure 8). Through the Part D LIS program, enrollees with low incomes and modest assets are eligible for assistance with Part D plan premiums and cost sharing.

As of 2020, approximately 13 million Part D enrollees are receiving LIS, including 6.7 million (52%) in PDPs and where to buy cialis 6.1 million (48%) in MA-PDs.On average (weighted by Medicare enrollment), LIS beneficiaries have eight benchmark plans available to them for 2021, or about one-fourth the average number of PDP choices available overall. All LIS enrollees can select any plan offered in their area, but if they enroll in a non-benchmark plan, they must pay some portion of their chosen plan’s monthly premium. In 2021, 10% of all LIS PDP enrollees who are eligible for premium-free Part D coverage (0.6 million LIS enrollees) will pay Part D premiums averaging $33 per where to buy cialis month unless they switch or are reassigned by CMS to premium-free plans.The number of benchmark plans available in 2021 will vary by region, from five to 10 (see map).

In 2020, 89% of the 6.6 million LIS PDP enrollees are projected to be in PDPs operated by five firms. CVS Health, where to buy cialis Centene, Humana, UnitedHealth, and Cigna (based on 2020 enrollment). DiscussionOur analysis of the Medicare Part D stand-alone drug plan landscape for 2021 shows that millions of Part D enrollees without low-income subsidies will face premium and other cost increases in 2021 if they stay in their current stand-alone drug plan.

There are more plans available nationwide in 2021, where to buy cialis with Medicare beneficiaries having 30 PDP choices during this year’s open enrollment period, plus 27 Medicare Advantage drug plan options. Most Part D PDP enrollees who remain in the same plan in 2021 will be in a plan with the standard $445 deductible and will face much higher cost sharing for brands than for generic drugs, including as much as 50% coinsurance for non-preferred drugs.Some Part D enrollees who choose to stay in their current plans may see lower premiums and other costs for their drug coverage, but nearly 8 in 10 non-LIS enrollees will face higher premiums if they remain in their current plan, and many will also face higher deductibles and cost sharing for covered drugs. Some beneficiaries might find the best coverage and costs for their specific medications in a plan where to buy cialis with a relatively low premium, while for other beneficiaries, a higher-premium plan might be more suitable.

Because Part D plans vary in a number of ways that can have a significant effect on an enrollee’s out-of-pocket spending, beyond the monthly premium, all Part D enrollees could benefit from the opportunity to compare plans during open enrollment.Juliette Cubanski is with KFF.Anthony Damico is an independent consultant. This analysis focuses on the Medicare Part D stand-alone prescription drug plan where to buy cialis marketplace in 2021 and trends over time. The analysis includes 20.2 million enrollees in stand-alone PDPs, as of March 2020.

The analysis excludes 17.4 million MA-PD enrollees (non-employer), and another 4.6 million enrollees in employer-group only PDPs and 2.3 million in employer-group only where to buy cialis MA-PDs for whom plan premium and benefits data are unavailable.Data on Part D plan availability, enrollment, and premiums were collected from a set of data files released by the Centers for Medicare &. Medicaid Services (CMS):– Part D plan landscape files, released each fall prior to the annual enrollment period– Part D plan and premium files, released each fall– Part D plan crosswalk files, released each fall– Part D contract/plan/state/county level enrollment files, released on a monthly basis– Part D Low-Income Subsidy enrollment files, released each spring– Medicare plan benefit package files, released each fallIn this analysis, premium estimates are weighted by September 2020 enrollment unless otherwise noted. Percentage increases are calculated based on non-rounded estimates and in some cases differ from percentage calculations calculated based on rounded estimates presented in the text..

Cialis for 70 year olds

In four days of speeches lasting more than eight hours at cialis for 70 year olds the Republican Levitra price walmart National Convention, climate change was never mentioned as a threat to the country. That silence stands apart from the climate alarm bells that have been sounding since Donald Trump accepted his first nomination for president four years ago. Thousands of cialis for 70 year olds Americans have been killed in natural disasters such as hurricanes and wildfires during Trump’s first term in office. Each of those four years has been among the world’s hottest on record.

Leaders of other nations have taken action as the United States ignores the issue. Even Wall Street has begun to take notice of how climate change could affect economic growth cialis for 70 year olds. None of that was apparent during the convention. Instead, Republican speakers insisted that the real concern was the climate ideas presented by Democrats.

Many experts say that if climate change is cialis for 70 year olds left unanswered, it could cost trillions of dollars to the U.S. Economy. Republicans said the real costs would come from Democratic plans to restrain the use of fossil fuels. €œBiden has cialis for 70 year olds promised to abolish the production of American oil, coal, shale and natural gas—laying waste to the economies of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Colorado and New Mexico,” Trump said.

€œMillions of jobs will be lost, and energy prices will soar.” (Biden’s plan does not call for a fracking ban). Those sentiments play well with Trump’s core supporters, but they’re askew from what most voters believe, including younger Republicans, according to polls. They don’t reflect the events that many cialis for 70 year olds Americans are either experiencing or seeing online. Uncontrolled wildfires in California and the strongest hurricane to hit Louisiana in 160 years.

Even as an unrelinquishing cialis has killed more than 180,000 people in the United States and kept millions of children across the country from returning to school, climate change remains on the minds of voters, polls show. Here are cialis for 70 year olds five climate themes that have advanced since Trump accepted his first nomination in 2016. Natural disasters More than 3,000 Americans have died in natural catastrophes during the past four years. Most of them were victims of Hurricane cialis for 70 year olds Maria in 2017.

The massive Category 5 storm killed an estimated 2,975 people in Puerto Rico and forced thousands to flee the U.S. Territory. The devastation continues to have ripple cialis for 70 year olds effects three years later. Tens of thousands of people still live under leaky blue tarps.

The island’s power supply, never reliable to begin with, has become far worse, and some parts of Puerto Rico were without power for a year. That was the same year that Hurricane Harvey dumped 60 inches of rain on parts of cialis for 70 year olds Houston, becoming the wettest cyclone on record. Tens of thousands of homes were damaged, and about 70 people were killed. Harvey caused more than $100 billion in damage, making it one of the costliest disasters to strike the United States.

Record wildfires have also burned across the West cialis for 70 year olds. The 2018 Camp Fire in California was the deadliest. It killed 85 people and destroyed more than 10,000 homes. It was fueled by drought, an outcome of climate cialis for 70 year olds change.

This week, California continued to battle the second- and third-largest wildfires in state history. Officials have connected the fires to climate change. €œAll but three of the Top 20 Largest #Wildfires have occurred since 2000, with 10 of these large and damaging wildfires cialis for 70 year olds occurring in the last decade,” the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection tweeted yesterday. €œAs fire weather continues to become more extreme, California is adjusting to fight these larger and more destructive wildfires.” Heat The Trump years have been some of the hottest since record-keeping began after the Civil War, according to NASA.

After a record-warm cialis for 70 year olds July, this year may break the all-time annual heat record set in 2016. That’s a likely outcome, said Gavin Schmidt, director of the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. That’s notable because four years ago, the record warmth was fueled by El Niño, a band of warm water covering the tropical Pacific Ocean. That influence is absent this year, Schmidt said, cialis for 70 year olds and long-term trends point to rising heat.

€œWe know that the trend is moving up. On average, every decade is warmer than the last,” he said. €œThe changes we’re seeing now are so far outside what would be possible in an un-globally-warmed world.” Public opinion Polling shows that voter concern about climate change has been growing for years and that it has not diminished as a result of the cialis for 70 year olds erectile dysfunction cialis. Concern among some voters has spiked during Trump’s tenure.

Before the cialis, polling showed climate change was the second-most important issue for Democratic primary voters, behind only health care. Now, responding to the cialis and cialis for 70 year olds restoring the economy top the list. But the public still wants the federal government to address climate change, recent polling shows. More Americans than ever—about 25%—view climate change as “extremely personally important,” according to a poll released last week by Stanford University, Resources for the Future and ReconMR.

That number is twice as large as it was in 2006, said cialis for 70 year olds the poll, which surveyed 1,000 adults between May and August. It also found that 82% of respondents want the federal government to act on climate change. And three-quarters of those surveyed said they had personally experienced the effects of global warming. €œThe erectile dysfunction treatment cialis has offered a unique opportunity to learn how people feel about climate cialis for 70 year olds change when faced with a global crisis,” said Ray Kopp, vice president of research and policy engagement at Resources for the Future.

€œThe claim that we can’t do anything about climate change without crashing the economy, or that we need to focus only on the cialis and not do anything on climate right now, simply doesn’t resonate with Americans,” he said. The U.S cialis for 70 year olds. (and everyone else) Since Trump pledged to withdraw from the Paris climate agreement in 2017, world leaders have pressed him to rejoin and to take the issue seriously. Among them are German Chancellor Angela Merkel and French President Emmanuel Macron.

Last year, Trump said Prince Charles spent 90 minutes talking to him about climate change, trying to convince him to take stronger cialis for 70 year olds action and to once again make the United States a world leader. In response, Trump said he wanted “good climate,” but his administration has continued to roll back environmental safeguards meant to reduce emissions. In December, Macron said other governments, including China, Russia and the European Union, would lead the world in reducing emissions. The yearslong process of withdrawing from the Paris Agreement cialis for 70 year olds won’t be done until November.

Yesterday, Biden tweeted that if he wins the election, he would rejoin the pact on the first day of his presidency. Climate hits Wall Street This week, it was announced that Exxon Mobil Corp. Would be dropped from the Dow cialis for 70 year olds Jones Industrial Average stock index. It’s a significant departure, as Exxon was the longest-tenured company on the Dow, having been listed for almost a century.

It’s also a reflection of how oil companies have taken a financial hit amid growing concerns about climate change and as a result of declining consumption due to the cialis. At the same time, some solar and cialis for 70 year olds wind companies have grown bigger than their fossil fuel competitors. The same factors that have weakened fossil fuel companies, including more aggressive climate targets, helped drive clean energy technologies. On Wall Street, business interests are increasingly warning the Federal Reserve and other regulators that climate change could pose a significant risk to the economy.

Earlier this year, 40 investment firms cialis for 70 year olds and organizations that handle more than $1 trillion in assets urged Fed Chairman Jerome Powell to take action. They warned him that climate “threats have the potential to compound in ways we don’t yet understand, with disastrous impacts the likes of which we haven’t seen before.” Reprinted from Climatewire with permission from E&E News. E&E provides daily coverage of essential energy and environmental news at www.eenews.net..

In four days of speeches lasting more than eight hours at the Republican National Convention, climate change was never mentioned as a threat to the Levitra price walmart country where to buy cialis. That silence stands apart from the climate alarm bells that have been sounding since Donald Trump accepted his first nomination for president four years ago. Thousands of Americans where to buy cialis have been killed in natural disasters such as hurricanes and wildfires during Trump’s first term in office.

Each of those four years has been among the world’s hottest on record. Leaders of other nations have taken action as the United States ignores the issue. Even Wall Street has begun to take where to buy cialis notice of how climate change could affect economic growth.

None of that was apparent during the convention. Instead, Republican speakers insisted that the real concern was the climate ideas presented by Democrats. Many experts say that if climate change is left unanswered, where to buy cialis it could cost trillions of dollars to the U.S.

Economy. Republicans said the real costs would come from Democratic plans to restrain the use of fossil fuels. €œBiden has promised to abolish the where to buy cialis production of American oil, coal, shale and natural gas—laying waste to the economies of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Colorado and New Mexico,” Trump said.

€œMillions of jobs will be lost, and energy prices will soar.” (Biden’s plan does not call for a fracking ban). Those sentiments play well with Trump’s core supporters, but they’re askew from what most voters believe, including younger Republicans, according to polls. They don’t where to buy cialis reflect the events that many Americans are either experiencing or seeing online.

Uncontrolled wildfires in California and the strongest hurricane to hit Louisiana in 160 years. Even as an unrelinquishing cialis has killed more than 180,000 people in the United States and kept millions of children across the country from returning to school, climate change remains on the minds of voters, polls show. Here are five climate themes that have advanced since Trump accepted his first nomination where to buy cialis in 2016.

Natural disasters More than 3,000 Americans have died in natural catastrophes during the past four years. Most of them were victims of Hurricane where to buy cialis Maria in 2017. The massive Category 5 storm killed an estimated 2,975 people in Puerto Rico and forced thousands to flee the U.S.

Territory. The devastation continues where to buy cialis to have ripple effects three years later. Tens of thousands of people still live under leaky blue tarps.

The island’s power supply, never reliable to begin with, has become far worse, and some parts of Puerto Rico were without power for a year. That was the same year where to buy cialis that Hurricane Harvey dumped 60 inches of rain on parts of Houston, becoming the wettest cyclone on record. Tens of thousands of homes were damaged, and about 70 people were killed.

Harvey caused more than $100 billion in damage, making it one of the costliest disasters to strike the United States. Record wildfires have also burned across where to buy cialis the West. The 2018 Camp Fire in California was the deadliest.

It killed 85 people and destroyed more than 10,000 homes. It was fueled by where to buy cialis drought, an outcome of climate change. This week, California continued to battle the second- and third-largest wildfires in state history.

Officials have connected the fires to climate change. €œAll but three of the where to buy cialis Top 20 Largest #Wildfires have occurred since 2000, with 10 of these large and damaging wildfires occurring in the last decade,” the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection tweeted yesterday. €œAs fire weather continues to become more extreme, California is adjusting to fight these larger and more destructive wildfires.” Heat The Trump years have been some of the hottest since record-keeping began after the Civil War, according to NASA.

After a record-warm July, this year may break the all-time annual heat where to buy cialis record set in 2016. That’s a likely outcome, said Gavin Schmidt, director of the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. That’s notable because four years ago, the record warmth was fueled by El Niño, a band of warm water covering the tropical Pacific Ocean.

That influence where to buy cialis is absent this year, Schmidt said, and long-term trends point to rising heat. €œWe know that the trend is moving up. On average, every decade is warmer than the last,” he said.

€œThe changes we’re seeing now are so far outside what would be possible in an un-globally-warmed world.” Public where to buy cialis opinion Polling shows that voter concern about climate change has been growing for years and that it has not diminished as a result of the erectile dysfunction cialis. Concern among some voters has spiked during Trump’s tenure. Before the cialis, polling showed climate change was the second-most important issue for Democratic primary voters, behind only health care.

Now, responding to the cialis and restoring the economy top the where to buy cialis list. But the public still wants the federal government to address climate change, recent polling shows. More Americans than ever—about 25%—view climate change as “extremely personally important,” according to a poll released last week by Stanford University, Resources for the Future and ReconMR.

That number is where to buy cialis twice as large as it was in 2006, said the poll, which surveyed 1,000 adults between May and August. It also found that 82% of respondents want the federal government to act on climate change. And three-quarters of those surveyed said they had personally experienced the effects of global warming.

€œThe erectile dysfunction treatment cialis has offered a unique opportunity to learn how people where to buy cialis feel about climate change when faced with a global crisis,” said Ray Kopp, vice president of research and policy engagement at Resources for the Future. €œThe claim that we can’t do anything about climate change without crashing the economy, or that we need to focus only on the cialis and not do anything on climate right now, simply doesn’t resonate with Americans,” he said. The U.S where to buy cialis.

(and everyone else) Since Trump pledged to withdraw from the Paris climate agreement in 2017, world leaders have pressed him to rejoin and to take the issue seriously. Among them are German Chancellor Angela Merkel and French President Emmanuel Macron. Last year, Trump said Prince where to buy cialis Charles spent 90 minutes talking to him about climate change, trying to convince him to take stronger action and to once again make the United States a world leader.

In response, Trump said he wanted “good climate,” but his administration has continued to roll back environmental safeguards meant to reduce emissions. In December, Macron said other governments, including China, Russia and the European Union, would lead the world in reducing emissions. The yearslong where to buy cialis process of withdrawing from the Paris Agreement won’t be done until November.

Yesterday, Biden tweeted that if he wins the election, he would rejoin the pact on the first day of his presidency. Climate hits Wall Street This week, it was announced that Exxon Mobil Corp. Would be dropped from the where to buy cialis Dow Jones Industrial Average stock index.

It’s a significant departure, as Exxon was the longest-tenured company on the Dow, having been listed for almost a century. It’s also a reflection of how oil companies have taken a financial hit amid growing concerns about climate change and as a result of declining consumption due to the cialis. At the same time, where to buy cialis some solar and wind companies have grown bigger than their fossil fuel competitors.

The same factors that have weakened fossil fuel companies, including more aggressive climate targets, helped drive clean energy technologies. On Wall Street, business interests are increasingly warning the Federal Reserve and other regulators that climate change could pose a significant risk to the economy. Earlier this year, 40 investment firms and organizations that handle more than $1 trillion in assets where to buy cialis urged Fed Chairman Jerome Powell to take action.

They warned him that climate “threats have the potential to compound in ways we don’t yet understand, with disastrous impacts the likes of which we haven’t seen before.” Reprinted from Climatewire with permission from E&E News. E&E provides daily coverage of essential energy and environmental news at www.eenews.net..

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NCHS Data cialis 40mg Brief No. 286, September 2017PDF Versionpdf icon (374 KB)Anjel Vahratian, Ph.D.Key findingsData from the National Health Interview Survey, 2015Among those aged 40–59, perimenopausal women (56.0%) were more likely than postmenopausal (40.5%) and premenopausal (32.5%) women to sleep less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period.Postmenopausal women aged 40–59 were more likely than premenopausal women aged 40–59 to have trouble falling asleep (27.1% compared with 16.8%, respectively), and staying asleep (35.9% compared with 23.7%), four times or more in the past week.Postmenopausal women aged 40–59 (55.1%) were more likely than premenopausal women aged 40–59 (47.0%) to not wake up feeling well rested 4 days or more in the past week.Sleep duration and quality are important contributors to health and wellness. Insufficient sleep is associated with cialis 40mg an increased risk for chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease (1) and diabetes (2). Women may be particularly vulnerable to sleep problems during times of reproductive hormonal change, such as after the menopausal transition.

Menopause is “the permanent cialis 40mg cessation of menstruation that occurs after the loss of ovarian activity” (3). This data brief describes sleep duration and sleep quality among nonpregnant women aged 40–59 by menopausal status. The age range selected for this analysis reflects the focus on midlife sleep health. In this analysis, 74.2% of women are cialis 40mg premenopausal, 3.7% are perimenopausal, and 22.1% are postmenopausal.

Keywords. Insufficient sleep, menopause, National Health Interview Survey Perimenopausal women were more likely than premenopausal and postmenopausal women to sleep less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour cialis 40mg period.More than one in three nonpregnant women aged 40–59 slept less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period (35.1%) (Figure 1). Perimenopausal women were most likely to sleep less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period (56.0%), compared with 32.5% of premenopausal and 40.5% of postmenopausal women. Postmenopausal women were significantly more likely than premenopausal women to sleep less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period.

Figure 1 cialis 40mg. Percentage of nonpregnant women aged 40–59 who slept less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period, by menopausal status. United States, 2015image icon1Significant quadratic trend by menopausal cialis 40mg status (p <. 0.05).NOTES.

Women were postmenopausal if they had gone without a menstrual cycle for more than 1 year or were in surgical menopause after the removal of their ovaries. Women were perimenopausal if they cialis 40mg no longer had a menstrual cycle and their last menstrual cycle was 1 year ago or less. Women were premenopausal if they still had a menstrual cycle. Access data table for Figure cialis 40mg 1pdf icon.SOURCE.

NCHS, National Health Interview Survey, 2015. The percentage of women aged 40–59 who had trouble falling asleep four times or more in the past week varied cialis 40mg by menopausal status.Nearly one in five nonpregnant women aged 40–59 had trouble falling asleep four times or more in the past week (19.4%) (Figure 2). The percentage of women in this age group who had trouble falling asleep four times or more in the past week increased from 16.8% among premenopausal women to 24.7% among perimenopausal and 27.1% among postmenopausal women. Postmenopausal women were significantly more likely than premenopausal women to have trouble falling asleep four times or more in the past week.

Figure 2 cialis 40mg. Percentage of nonpregnant women aged 40–59 who had trouble falling asleep four times or more in the past week, by menopausal status. United States, 2015image icon1Significant linear trend by menopausal cialis 40mg status (p <. 0.05).NOTES.

Women were postmenopausal if they had gone without a menstrual cycle for more than 1 year or were in surgical menopause after the removal of their ovaries. Women were perimenopausal if they no longer had a menstrual cycle and their last cialis 40mg menstrual cycle was 1 year ago or less. Women were premenopausal if they still had a menstrual cycle. Access data cialis 40mg table for Figure 2pdf icon.SOURCE.

NCHS, National Health Interview Survey, 2015. The percentage of women aged 40–59 who had trouble staying asleep four times or more in the past week varied by menopausal status.More than one in four nonpregnant women aged 40–59 had trouble staying asleep four times or more in the past week cialis 40mg (26.7%) (Figure 3). The percentage of women aged 40–59 who had trouble staying asleep four times or more in the past week increased from 23.7% among premenopausal, to 30.8% among perimenopausal, and to 35.9% among postmenopausal women. Postmenopausal women were significantly more likely than premenopausal women to have trouble staying asleep four times or more in the past week.

Figure 3 cialis 40mg. Percentage of nonpregnant women aged 40–59 who had trouble staying asleep four times or more in the past week, by menopausal status. United States, 2015image icon1Significant linear trend by menopausal status (p < cialis 40mg. 0.05).NOTES.

Women were postmenopausal if they had gone without a menstrual cycle for more than 1 year or were in surgical menopause after the removal of their ovaries. Women were perimenopausal if they no longer had a cialis 40mg menstrual cycle and their last menstrual cycle was 1 year ago or less. Women were premenopausal if they still had a menstrual cycle. Access data table for Figure 3pdf icon.SOURCE cialis 40mg.

NCHS, National Health Interview Survey, 2015. The percentage of women aged 40–59 who did not wake up feeling well rested 4 days or more in the past week varied by menopausal status.Nearly one in two nonpregnant women aged 40–59 did not wake up feeling well rested 4 days or more in the past week (48.9%) (Figure 4). The percentage of women in this cialis 40mg age group who did not wake up feeling well rested 4 days or more in the past week increased from 47.0% among premenopausal women to 49.9% among perimenopausal and 55.1% among postmenopausal women. Postmenopausal women were significantly more likely than premenopausal women to not wake up feeling well rested 4 days or more in the past week.

Figure 4 cialis 40mg. Percentage of nonpregnant women aged 40–59 who did not wake up feeling well rested 4 days or more in the past week, by menopausal status. United States, 2015image icon1Significant linear trend by menopausal status (p <. 0.05).NOTES.

Women were postmenopausal if they had gone without a menstrual cycle for more than 1 year or were in surgical menopause after the removal of their ovaries. Women were perimenopausal if they no longer had a menstrual cycle and their last menstrual cycle was 1 year ago or less. Women were premenopausal if they still had a menstrual cycle. Access data table for Figure 4pdf icon.SOURCE.

NCHS, National Health Interview Survey, 2015. SummaryThis report describes sleep duration and sleep quality among U.S. Nonpregnant women aged 40–59 by menopausal status. Perimenopausal women were most likely to sleep less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period compared with premenopausal and postmenopausal women.

In contrast, postmenopausal women were most likely to have poor-quality sleep. A greater percentage of postmenopausal women had frequent trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, and not waking well rested compared with premenopausal women. The percentage of perimenopausal women with poor-quality sleep was between the percentages for the other two groups in all three categories. Sleep duration changes with advancing age (4), but sleep duration and quality are also influenced by concurrent changes in women’s reproductive hormone levels (5).

Because sleep is critical for optimal health and well-being (6), the findings in this report highlight areas for further research and targeted health promotion. DefinitionsMenopausal status. A three-level categorical variable was created from a series of questions that asked women. 1) “How old were you when your periods or menstrual cycles started?.

€. 2) “Do you still have periods or menstrual cycles?. €. 3) “When did you have your last period or menstrual cycle?.

€. And 4) “Have you ever had both ovaries removed, either as part of a hysterectomy or as one or more separate surgeries?. € Women were postmenopausal if they a) had gone without a menstrual cycle for more than 1 year or b) were in surgical menopause after the removal of their ovaries. Women were perimenopausal if they a) no longer had a menstrual cycle and b) their last menstrual cycle was 1 year ago or less.

Premenopausal women still had a menstrual cycle.Not waking feeling well rested. Determined by respondents who answered 3 days or less on the questionnaire item asking, “In the past week, on how many days did you wake up feeling well rested?. €Short sleep duration. Determined by respondents who answered 6 hours or less on the questionnaire item asking, “On average, how many hours of sleep do you get in a 24-hour period?.

€Trouble falling asleep. Determined by respondents who answered four times or more on the questionnaire item asking, “In the past week, how many times did you have trouble falling asleep?. €Trouble staying asleep. Determined by respondents who answered four times or more on the questionnaire item asking, “In the past week, how many times did you have trouble staying asleep?.

€ Data source and methodsData from the 2015 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) were used for this analysis. NHIS is a multipurpose health survey conducted continuously throughout the year by the National Center for Health Statistics. Interviews are conducted in person in respondents’ homes, but follow-ups to complete interviews may be conducted over the telephone. Data for this analysis came from the Sample Adult core and cancer supplement sections of the 2015 NHIS.

For more information about NHIS, including the questionnaire, visit the NHIS website.All analyses used weights to produce national estimates. Estimates on sleep duration and quality in this report are nationally representative of the civilian, noninstitutionalized nonpregnant female population aged 40–59 living in households across the United States. The sample design is described in more detail elsewhere (7). Point estimates and their estimated variances were calculated using SUDAAN software (8) to account for the complex sample design of NHIS.

Linear and quadratic trend tests of the estimated proportions across menopausal status were tested in SUDAAN via PROC DESCRIPT using the POLY option. Differences between percentages were evaluated using two-sided significance tests at the 0.05 level. About the authorAnjel Vahratian is with the National Center for Health Statistics, Division of Health Interview Statistics. The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Lindsey Black in the preparation of this report.

ReferencesFord ES. Habitual sleep duration and predicted 10-year cardiovascular risk using the pooled cohort risk equations among US adults. J Am Heart Assoc 3(6):e001454. 2014.Ford ES, Wheaton AG, Chapman DP, Li C, Perry GS, Croft JB.

Associations between self-reported sleep duration and sleeping disorder with concentrations of fasting and 2-h glucose, insulin, and glycosylated hemoglobin among adults without diagnosed diabetes. J Diabetes 6(4):338–50. 2014.American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. ACOG Practice Bulletin No.

141. Management of menopausal symptoms. Obstet Gynecol 123(1):202–16. 2014.Black LI, Nugent CN, Adams PF.

Tables of adult health behaviors, sleep. National Health Interview Survey, 2011–2014pdf icon. 2016.Santoro N. Perimenopause.

From research to practice. J Women’s Health (Larchmt) 25(4):332–9. 2016.Watson NF, Badr MS, Belenky G, Bliwise DL, Buxton OM, Buysse D, et al. Recommended amount of sleep for a healthy adult.

A joint consensus statement of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine and Sleep Research Society. J Clin Sleep Med 11(6):591–2. 2015.Parsons VL, Moriarity C, Jonas K, et al. Design and estimation for the National Health Interview Survey, 2006–2015.

National Center for Health Statistics. Vital Health Stat 2(165). 2014.RTI International. SUDAAN (Release 11.0.0) [computer software].

2012. Suggested citationVahratian A. Sleep duration and quality among women aged 40–59, by menopausal status. NCHS data brief, no 286.

Hyattsville, MD. National Center for Health Statistics. 2017.Copyright informationAll material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission. Citation as to source, however, is appreciated.National Center for Health StatisticsCharles J.

Rothwell, M.S., M.B.A., DirectorJennifer H. Madans, Ph.D., Associate Director for ScienceDivision of Health Interview StatisticsMarcie L. Cynamon, DirectorStephen J. Blumberg, Ph.D., Associate Director for Science.

NCHS Data where to buy cialis wikipedia reference Brief No. 286, September 2017PDF Versionpdf icon (374 KB)Anjel Vahratian, Ph.D.Key findingsData from the National Health Interview Survey, 2015Among those aged 40–59, perimenopausal women (56.0%) were more likely than postmenopausal (40.5%) and premenopausal (32.5%) women to sleep less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period.Postmenopausal women aged 40–59 were more likely than premenopausal women aged 40–59 to have trouble falling asleep (27.1% compared with 16.8%, respectively), and staying asleep (35.9% compared with 23.7%), four times or more in the past week.Postmenopausal women aged 40–59 (55.1%) were more likely than premenopausal women aged 40–59 (47.0%) to not wake up feeling well rested 4 days or more in the past week.Sleep duration and quality are important contributors to health and wellness. Insufficient sleep is associated with an increased risk for chronic conditions such where to buy cialis as cardiovascular disease (1) and diabetes (2). Women may be particularly vulnerable to sleep problems during times of reproductive hormonal change, such as after the menopausal transition. Menopause is “the permanent where to buy cialis cessation of menstruation that occurs after the loss of ovarian activity” (3).

This data brief describes sleep duration and sleep quality among nonpregnant women aged 40–59 by menopausal status. The age range selected for this analysis reflects the focus on midlife sleep health. In this analysis, where to buy cialis 74.2% of women are premenopausal, 3.7% are perimenopausal, and 22.1% are postmenopausal. Keywords. Insufficient sleep, menopause, National Health Interview Survey Perimenopausal women were where to buy cialis more likely than premenopausal and postmenopausal women to sleep less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period.More than one in three nonpregnant women aged 40–59 slept less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period (35.1%) (Figure 1).

Perimenopausal women were most likely to sleep less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period (56.0%), compared with 32.5% of premenopausal and 40.5% of postmenopausal women. Postmenopausal women were significantly more likely than premenopausal women to sleep less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period. Figure 1 where to buy cialis. Percentage of nonpregnant women aged 40–59 who slept less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period, by menopausal status. United States, 2015image icon1Significant quadratic trend by menopausal status (p < where to buy cialis.

0.05).NOTES. Women were postmenopausal if they had gone without a menstrual cycle for more than 1 year or were in surgical menopause after the removal of their ovaries. Women were perimenopausal if they no longer had a menstrual cycle and their last menstrual where to buy cialis cycle was 1 year ago or less. Women were premenopausal if they still had a menstrual cycle. Access data table where to buy cialis for Figure 1pdf icon.SOURCE.

NCHS, National Health Interview Survey, 2015. The percentage of women aged 40–59 who had trouble falling asleep four times or more in the past week varied by menopausal status.Nearly one in five nonpregnant women aged 40–59 had trouble falling asleep four times or more in the past week where to buy cialis (19.4%) (Figure 2). The percentage of women in this age group who had trouble falling asleep four times or more in the past week increased from 16.8% among premenopausal women to 24.7% among perimenopausal and 27.1% among postmenopausal women. Postmenopausal women were significantly more likely than premenopausal women to have trouble falling asleep four times or more in the past week. Figure 2 where to buy cialis.

Percentage of nonpregnant women aged 40–59 who had trouble falling asleep four times or more in the past week, by menopausal status. United States, 2015image icon1Significant linear trend by menopausal where to buy cialis status (p <. 0.05).NOTES. Women were postmenopausal if they had gone without a menstrual cycle for more than 1 year or were in surgical menopause after the removal of their ovaries. Women were perimenopausal if they no longer had a menstrual cycle and their last menstrual cycle was 1 year where to buy cialis ago or less.

Women were premenopausal if they still had a menstrual cycle. Access data where to buy cialis table for Figure 2pdf icon.SOURCE. NCHS, National Health Interview Survey, 2015. The percentage of women aged 40–59 who had trouble staying asleep four times or more in the past week where to buy cialis varied by menopausal status.More than one in four nonpregnant women aged 40–59 had trouble staying asleep four times or more in the past week (26.7%) (Figure 3). The percentage of women aged 40–59 who had trouble staying asleep four times or more in the past week increased from 23.7% among premenopausal, to 30.8% among perimenopausal, and to 35.9% among postmenopausal women.

Postmenopausal women were significantly more likely than premenopausal women to have trouble staying asleep four times or more in the past week. Figure 3 where to buy cialis. Percentage of nonpregnant women aged 40–59 who had trouble staying asleep four times or more in the past week, by menopausal status. United States, 2015image icon1Significant where to buy cialis linear trend by menopausal status (p <. 0.05).NOTES.

Women were postmenopausal if they had gone without a menstrual cycle for more than 1 year or were in surgical menopause after the removal of their ovaries. Women were perimenopausal if they no longer had a menstrual cycle and where to buy cialis their last menstrual cycle was 1 year ago or less. Women were premenopausal if they still had a menstrual cycle. Access data where to buy cialis table for Figure 3pdf icon.SOURCE. NCHS, National Health Interview Survey, 2015.

The percentage of women aged 40–59 who did not wake up feeling well rested 4 days or more in the past week varied by menopausal status.Nearly one in two nonpregnant women aged 40–59 did not wake up feeling well rested 4 days or more in the past week (48.9%) (Figure 4). The percentage of women in this age group who did not where to buy cialis wake up feeling well rested 4 days or more in the past week increased from 47.0% among premenopausal women to 49.9% among perimenopausal and 55.1% among postmenopausal women. Postmenopausal women were significantly more likely than premenopausal women to not wake up feeling well rested 4 days or more in the past week. Figure 4 where to buy cialis. Percentage of nonpregnant women aged 40–59 who did not wake up feeling well rested 4 days or more in the past week, by menopausal status.

United States, 2015image icon1Significant linear trend by menopausal status (p <. 0.05).NOTES. Women were postmenopausal if they had gone without a menstrual cycle for more than 1 year or were in surgical menopause after the removal of their ovaries. Women were perimenopausal if they no longer had a menstrual cycle and their last menstrual cycle was 1 year ago or less. Women were premenopausal if they still had a menstrual cycle.

Access data table for Figure 4pdf icon.SOURCE. NCHS, National Health Interview Survey, 2015. SummaryThis report describes sleep duration and sleep quality among U.S. Nonpregnant women aged 40–59 by menopausal status. Perimenopausal women were most likely to sleep less than 7 hours, on average, in a 24-hour period compared with premenopausal and postmenopausal women.

In contrast, postmenopausal women were most likely to have poor-quality sleep. A greater percentage of postmenopausal women had frequent trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, and not waking well rested compared with premenopausal women. The percentage of perimenopausal women with poor-quality sleep was between the percentages for the other two groups in all three categories. Sleep duration changes with advancing age (4), but sleep duration and quality are also influenced by concurrent changes in women’s reproductive hormone levels (5). Because sleep is critical for optimal health and well-being (6), the findings in this report highlight areas for further research and targeted health promotion.

DefinitionsMenopausal status. A three-level categorical variable was created from a series of questions that asked women. 1) “How old were you when your periods or menstrual cycles started?. €. 2) “Do you still have periods or menstrual cycles?.

€. 3) “When did you have your last period or menstrual cycle?. €. And 4) “Have you ever had both ovaries removed, either as part of a hysterectomy or as one or more separate surgeries?. € Women were postmenopausal if they a) had gone without a menstrual cycle for more than 1 year or b) were in surgical menopause after the removal of their ovaries.

Women were perimenopausal if they a) no longer had a menstrual cycle and b) their last menstrual cycle was 1 year ago or less. Premenopausal women still had a menstrual cycle.Not waking feeling well rested. Determined by respondents who answered 3 days or less on the questionnaire item asking, “In the past week, on how many days did you wake up feeling well rested?. €Short sleep duration. Determined by respondents who answered 6 hours or less on the questionnaire item asking, “On average, how many hours of sleep do you get in a 24-hour period?.

€Trouble falling asleep. Determined by respondents who answered four times or more on the questionnaire item asking, “In the past week, how many times did you have trouble falling asleep?. €Trouble staying asleep. Determined by respondents who answered four times or more on the questionnaire item asking, “In the past week, how many times did you have trouble staying asleep?. € Data source and methodsData from the 2015 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) were used for this analysis.

NHIS is a multipurpose health survey conducted continuously throughout the year by the National Center for Health Statistics. Interviews are conducted in person in respondents’ homes, but follow-ups to complete interviews may be conducted over the telephone. Data for this analysis came from the Sample Adult core and cancer supplement sections of the 2015 NHIS. For more information about NHIS, including the questionnaire, visit the NHIS website.All analyses used weights to produce national estimates. Estimates on sleep duration and quality in this report are nationally representative of the civilian, noninstitutionalized nonpregnant female population aged 40–59 living in households across the United States.

The sample design is described in more detail elsewhere (7). Point estimates and their estimated variances were calculated using SUDAAN software (8) to account for the complex sample design of NHIS. Linear and quadratic trend tests of the estimated proportions across menopausal status were tested in SUDAAN via PROC DESCRIPT using the POLY option. Differences between percentages were evaluated using two-sided significance tests at the 0.05 level. About the authorAnjel Vahratian is with the National Center for Health Statistics, Division of Health Interview Statistics.

The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Lindsey Black in the preparation of this report. ReferencesFord ES. Habitual sleep duration and predicted 10-year cardiovascular risk using the pooled cohort risk equations among US adults. J Am Heart Assoc 3(6):e001454. 2014.Ford ES, Wheaton AG, Chapman DP, Li C, Perry GS, Croft JB.

Associations between self-reported sleep duration and sleeping disorder with concentrations of fasting and 2-h glucose, insulin, and glycosylated hemoglobin among adults without diagnosed diabetes. J Diabetes 6(4):338–50. 2014.American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 141.

Management of menopausal symptoms. Obstet Gynecol 123(1):202–16. 2014.Black LI, Nugent CN, Adams PF. Tables of adult health behaviors, sleep. National Health Interview Survey, 2011–2014pdf icon.

2016.Santoro N. Perimenopause. From research to practice. J Women’s Health (Larchmt) 25(4):332–9. 2016.Watson NF, Badr MS, Belenky G, Bliwise DL, Buxton OM, Buysse D, et al.

Recommended amount of sleep for a healthy adult. A joint consensus statement of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine and Sleep Research Society. J Clin Sleep Med 11(6):591–2. 2015.Parsons VL, Moriarity C, Jonas K, et al. Design and estimation for the National Health Interview Survey, 2006–2015.

National Center for Health Statistics. Vital Health Stat 2(165). 2014.RTI International. SUDAAN (Release 11.0.0) [computer software]. 2012.

Suggested citationVahratian A. Sleep duration and quality among women aged 40–59, by menopausal status. NCHS data brief, no 286. Hyattsville, MD. National Center for Health Statistics.

2017.Copyright informationAll material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission. Citation as to source, however, is appreciated.National Center for Health StatisticsCharles J. Rothwell, M.S., M.B.A., DirectorJennifer H. Madans, Ph.D., Associate Director for ScienceDivision of Health Interview StatisticsMarcie L. Cynamon, DirectorStephen J.

Blumberg, Ph.D., Associate Director for Science.

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